Henrik Ibsen: Ibsen Literary Works and His Life

Personal Information: Family
Born March 20, 1828, in Skien, Norway; died of complications resulting from a series of strokes, May 23, 1906, in Oslo, Norway; son of Knud (in business) and Marichen (Altenburg) Ibsen; married Susannah Thoresen, 1858; children: fathered an illegitimate child at age eighteen, (first marriage) Sigurd (son). Education: Attended University of Christiania (now Oslo) in early 1850s.

Career
Norwegian poet, playwright, and essayist. Apprentice to pharmacist in Grimstad, Norway, beginning in c. 1843; Bergen National Theatre, Bergen, Norway, 1851-57, began as theater adviser, became resident dramatist and stage director; Norwegian Theatre, Christiania (now Oslo), Norway, artistic director and manager, 1857-1862; Christiania Theatre, literary adviser, 1863; received bursary from state, 1863; began twenty-seven-year self-imposed exile in April, 1864, traveling to Rome, Italy, on a government grant.

Awards
Received honorary degree from University of Uppsala, 1877.


"Sidelights"
Hailed as one of the pioneers of modern drama, Henrik Ibsen broke away from the romantic tradition of nineteenth-century theater with his realistic portrayals of individuals, his focus on psychological concerns, and his investigation into the role of the artist in society. While initially utilizing conventions associated with the "well-made play," including exaggerated suspense and mistaken identity, Ibsen later used dialogue, commonplace events, and symbolism to explore the elusiveness of self-knowledge and the restrictive nature of traditional morality. Once writing that "I prefer to ask; 'tis not my task to answer," Ibsen did not establish distinct dichotomies between good and evil, but instead provided a context in which to explore the complexities of human behavior and the ambiguities of reality. Martin Esslin explained: "Ibsen can ... be seen as one of the principal creators and well-springs of the whole modern movement in drama, having contributed to the development of all its diverse and often seemingly opposed and contradictory manifestations: the ideological and political theatre, as well as the introspective, introverted trends which tend towards the representation of inner realities and dreams."

Ibsen was born to wealthy parents in Skien, a lumbering town south of Christiania, now Oslo. The family was reduced to poverty when his father's business failed in 1834. After leaving school at age fifteen and working for six years as a pharmacist's assistant, Ibsen went to Christiania hoping to continue his studies at Christiania University. He failed the Greek and mathematics portions of the entrance examinations, however, and was not admitted. During this time, he read and wrote poetry, which he would later say came more easily to him than prose. He wrote his first drama, Catilina (Catiline), in 1850 and although this work generated little interest and was not produced until several years later, it evidenced Ibsen's emerging concerns with the conflict between guilt and desire. While Catiline is a traditional romance written in verse, Ibsen's merging of two female prototypes--one conservative and domestic, the other adventurous and dangerous--foreshadowed the psychological intricacies of his later plays.

Shortly after writing Catiline, Ibsen became assistant stage manager at the Norwegian Theater in Bergen. His duties included composing and producing an original drama each year. Ibsen was expected to write about Norway's glorious past, but because Norway had just recently acquired its independence from Denmark after five hundred years, medieval folklore and Viking sagas were his only sources of inspiration. Although these early plays were coldly received and are often considered insignificant, they further indicated the direction Ibsen's drama was to take, especially in their presentation of strong individuals who come in conflict with the oppressive social mores of nineteenth-century Norwegian society. In 1862, verging on a nervous breakdown from overwork, Ibsen began to petition the government for a grant to travel and write. He was given a stipend in 1864, and various scholarships and pensions subsequently followed. For the next twenty-seven years he lived in Italy and Germany, returning to Norway only twice. While critics often cite Ibsen's bitter memories of his father's financial failure and his own lack of success as a theater manager as the causes for his long absence, it is also noted that Ibsen believed that only by distancing himself from his homeland could he obtain the perspective necessary to write truly Norwegian drama. Ibsen explained: "I could never lead a consistent life [in Norway]. I was one man in my work and another outside--and for that reason my work failed in consistency too."

Ibsen's work is generally divided by critics into three phases. The first consists of his early dramas written in verse and modeled after romantic historical tragedy and Norse sagas: Gildet paa Solhaug (1856; The Feast of Solhaug), Fru Inger til Ostraat (1857; Lady Inger of Ostraat), Haermaendene paa Helgeland (1858; The Vikings at Helgeland) and Kjaerlighedens Komedie (1862; Love's Comedy). These plays are noted primarily for their idiosyncratic Norwegian characters and for their emerging elements of satire and social criticism. In Love's Comedy, for example, Ibsen attacked conventional concepts of love and explored the conflict between the artist's mission and his responsibility to others. Brand (1866), an epic verse drama, was the first play Ibsen wrote after leaving Norway and was the first of his works to earn both popular and critical attention. The story of a clergyman who makes impossible demands on his congregation, his family, and himself, Brand reveals the fanaticism and inhumanity of uncompromising idealism. While commentators suggest that Brand is a harsh and emotionally inaccessible character, they also recognized that this play reflects Ibsen's doubts and personal anguish over his poverty and lack of success. In comparison to Brand, the protagonist of Ibsen's next drama, Peer Gynt (1867), while witty, imaginative, and vigorous, is incapable of self-analysis. Although this play takes on universal significance due to Ibsen's use of fantasy, parable, and symbolism, it is often described as a sociological analysis of the Norwegian people. Harold Beyer explained: "[Peer Gynt] is a central work in Norwegian literature, comprising elements from the nationalistic and romantic atmosphere of the preceding period and yet satirizing these elements in a spirit of realism akin to the period that was coming. It has been said that if a Norwegian were to leave his country and could take only one book to express his national culture, [Peer Gynt] is the one he would choose."

Ibsen wrote prose dramas concerned with social realism during the second phase of his career. The first of these plays, De Unges Forbund (1869; The League of Youth), a caustic satire of the condescending attitudes of the Norwegian upper class, introduced idiomatic speech and relied upon dialogue rather than monologue to reveal the thoughts and emotions of the characters. Written, as Ibsen declared, "without a single monologue, or even without a single aside," The League of Youth evidenced Ibsen's shift from an emphasis on grandiose plot structures to characterization and interpersonal relationships. During his stay in Munich, when he was becoming increasingly aware of social injustice, Ibsen wrote Samfundets Stotter (1877; The Pillars of Society). A harsh indictment of the moral corruption and crime resulting from the quest for money and power, this drama provided what Ibsen called a "contrast between ability and desire, between will and possibility." The protagonist, Consul Bernick, while first urging his son to abide by conventional morality and become a "pillar of society," eventually experiences an inner transformation and asserts instead: "You shall be yourself, Olaf, and then the rest will have to take care of itself." Ibsen's next drama, Et Dukkehjem (1879; A Doll's House), is often considered a masterpiece of realist theater. The account of the collapse of a middle-class marriage, this work, in addition to sparking debate about women's rights and divorce, is also regarded as innovative and daring because of its emphasis on psychological tension rather than external action. This technique required that emotion be conveyed through small, controlled gestures, shifts in inflection, and pauses, and therefore instituted a new style of acting. Gengangere (1881; Ghosts) and En Folkefiende (1882; An Enemy of Society) are the last plays included in Ibsen's realist period. In Ghosts Ibsen uses a character infected with syphilis to symbolize how stale habits and prejudices can be passed down from generation to generation; An Enemy of Society demonstrates Ibsen's contempt for what he considered stagnant political rhetoric. Audiences accustomed to the Romantic sentimentality of the "well-made play" were initially taken aback by such controversial subjects. However, when dramatists Bernard Shaw and George Brandes, among others, defended Ibsen's works, the theater-going public began to accept drama as social commentary and not merely as entertainment.

With Vildanden (1884; The Wild Duck) and Hedda Gabler (1890), Ibsen entered a period of transition during which he continued to deal with modern, realistic themes, but made increasing use of symbolism and metaphor. The Wild Duck, regarded as one of Ibsen's greatest tragicomical works, explores the role of illusion and self-deception in everyday life. In this play, Gregers Werle, vehemently believing that everyone must be painstakingly honest, inadvertently causes great harm by meddling in other people's affairs. At the end of The Wild Duck, Ibsen's implication that humankind is unable to bear absolute truth is reflected in the words of the character named Relling: "If you rob the average man of his illusion, you are almost certain to rob him of his happiness." Hedda Gabler concerns a frustrated aristocratic woman and the vengeance she inflicts on herself and those around her. Taking place entirely in Hedda's sitting room shortly after her marriage, this play has been praised for its subtle investigation into the psyche of a woman who is unable to love others or confront her sexuality.

Ibsen returned to Norway in 1891 and there entered his third and final period with the dramas Bygmester Solness (1892; The Master Builder), Lille Eyolf (1894; Little Eyolf), John Gabriel Borkman (1896), and Naar vi dode vaagner (1899; When We Dead Awaken). In these final works, Ibsen dealt with the conflict between art and life and shifted his focus from the individual in society to the individual alone and isolated. It is speculated that The Master Builder was written in response to Norwegian writer Knut Hamson's proclamation that Ibsen should relinquish his influence in the Norwegian theater to the younger generation. Described as a "poetic confession," The Master Builder centers around an elderly writer, Solness, who believes he has misused and compromised his art. Little Eyolf, the account of a crippled boy who compensates for his handicap through a variety of other accomplishments, explores how self-deception can lead to an empty, meaningless life. The search for personal contentment and self-knowledge is also a primary theme in John Gabriel Borkman, a play about a banker whose quest for greatness isolates him from those who love him. In his last play, When We Dead Awaken, subtitled "A Dramatic Monologue," Ibsen appears to pass judgement on himself as an artist. Deliberating over such questions as whether his writing would have been more truthful if he had lived a more active life, When We Dead Awaken is considered one of Ibsen's most personal and autobiographical works.

After completing When We Dead Awaken, Ibsen suffered a series of strokes that left him an invalid for five years until his death in 1906. Although audiences considered Ibsen's dramas highly controversial during his lifetime because of his frank treatment of social problems, present scholars focus on the philosophical and psychological elements of his plays and the ideological debates they have generated. Ibsen's occasional use of theatrical conventions and outmoded subject matter has caused some critics to dismiss his work as obsolete and irrelevant to contemporary society, but others recognize his profound influence on the development of modern drama. Haskell M. Block asserted: "In its seemingly limitless capacity to respond to the changing need and desires of successive generations of audiences, [Ibsen's] work is truly classic, universal in implication and yet capable of endless transformation."

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*The information above collected from any source, either from internet and books.

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Characters Who Create A Social Reality: An Analysis of Ibsen’s Ghosts

INTRODUCTION

First of all, it is necessary for us to know the condition of realism dramas before trying to comment or criticize them. Basically, realism dramas are not different in many ways compared to dramas today. We can even say that realism dramas are the pioneer of modern drama.
By the mid-nineteenth century, the Romantic outlook had been modified considerably, for the belief in man’s idealistic nature had received many setbacks. For example, after the downfall of Napoleon around 1815, most European countries had reinstated political conditions more oppressive than those of the eighteenth century. The deals of liberty, equality, and fraternity now seemed doomed. Furthermore, the general misery of a large part of humanity was being emphasized by the industrial Revolution, as a result of which workers were pouring into urban centers where living conditions were daily more inadequate. Crime and poverty were prevalent (Brockett, 19- : 287).

In the face of such political and economic conditions the Romanticist’s emphasis upon the ideal seemed both too vague and too impractical. Many came to argue that dreams must be abandoned for a systematic inquiry into actual condition and for solutions based upon discoverable facts. Observation, prediction, and control of society became the new goals (Brockett, 19- : 287).

Among the major influences on the new though was Auguste Comte (1798-1857), whose philosophy came to be called positivism. Comte argued that sociology is the highest form of science and that all knowledge should ultimately be used for the improvement of society. He states that the key to knowledge lies in precise observation and experimentation, since all events must be understood in terms of natural cause and effect (Brockett, 19- : 287).
Positivism attracted a large following and was soon reenforced by Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species (1859). Darwin’s doctrines may be divided into two main theses: (1) all forms of life have developed gradually from a common ancestry; and (2) the evolution of species is explained by the “survival of the fittest” (Brockett, 19- : 288).

Darwin’s theories have several significant implications. First, heredity and environment are made the determinants of existence. Second, heredity and environment become explanations for all character traits and actions. Furthermore, since behavior is determined by factors beyond the individual’s control, he cannot be blamed for it. Third, Darwin’s theses cast considerable doubt upon the existence of God as traditionally conceived. Fourth, Darwin’s theories strengthened the idea of progress. Fifth, man is reduced to the status of a natural object (Brockett, 19- : 288).

Ibsen is supposed to be much influenced by Darwin’s theories. The first and second impacts as mentioned above, implicitly, drawn in his works during the second period of his career. These impacts are represented in many ways. The characters of Ghosts, which was first performed in 1881, is a good example of how characters who create a social reality at the age of Ibsen, put in practice.

THE SUMMARY OF GHOSTS
Ghosts tells a story about a young man named Osvald Alving. He was a son of The Alvings. He just came from his long life abroad, in France. His father, Mr. Alving, was just died. He wanted to follow the ceremony was taken place by his mother, Mrs. Helena Alving, in order to give the least honor for his husband. In his coming, Osvald decided not to live abroad in France for longer. He wanted to stay with his mother and their servant.

Osvald’s willing scorned Mrs. Alving. She was the only one who encouraged Osvald to go abroad. Her reason was unique. She trusted that it was not good for young Osvald kept staying at his own home. This is due to her husband, Mr. Alving who was a heartbreaker, was suffered from syphilis. She didn’t want young Osvald inherited her husband’s illness. So that she encouraged young Osvald to go abroad and lived in France. Young Osvald didn’t know his mother’s really reason in encouraging him to go abroad since he was about seven years old. He just followed what her wanted him to do.

Osvald even had not been so long staying at home when finally he felt in love with their servant, Regine Engstrad. Mrs. Alving was shocked knowing this. Both Osvald and Regine didn’t know a secret. Indeed, Regine was Osvald’s stepsister. Mr. Alving had an affair with Regine’s mother who was their servant as well. Mrs. Alving worried the same thing occurred to his husband would be repeated to her son. Like father like son.

Mrs. Alving’s worry was increased at the time she knew that Osvald, who wasn’t a heartbreaker as his father was, suffered from syphilis as well. It was supposed to be inherited-sin. Firstly, Osvald blamed himself, he was angry to himself, and thought that it was all due to his carelessness. But finally, he made up his mind that it was an inherited-sin as well.

Osvald finally found that he didn’t have any hope to live for longer. Knowing Regine, who was supposed to be his joy of life, indeed, was his stepsister, and despair of syphilis, Osvald wanted to end his own life. He asked his mother to injure him Morphine tablets in over-doses. It wasn’t clear his mother realized his willing to suicide or not. That’s the end.

ANALYSIS
From the summary above, it is now become clear that Ibsen was much influenced by Darwin’s theories. He was strongly agreed that heredity and environment are made the determinants of existence. Heredity and environment, then, become explanations for all character traits and actions. Furthermore, since behavior is determined by factors beyond the individual’s control, he cannot be blamed for it.

This, then, become the concept of modern drama that is however a man survive against the heredity and environment, it doesn’t change anything. Everything is determined by social reality. This is completely different from the concept of previous works, of course.
As it has told above that characterization of Ghosts obviously described the society at the age of Ibsen. The question then may arise: what kind of characters who create such social reality at the age of Ibsen so he came to that concept? To analyze it, let’s see each of the character.

1. Osvald Alving
It is not necessary to explain, twice, that Ibsen is a playwright who often shows that free will, at the end story, finally must have defeated by the social reality. Or, according to Taine, Ibsen is a playwright who put his character in inferior position against the milieu.
Osvald is such the character. Osvald is described as a brave, dynamic youth. This is shown when Osvald saw his mother was talking with Pastor Meanders. Osvald didn’t like Pastor Meanders. Osvald didn’t agree at all with Pastor Meanders’ view. Moreover, he bravely against him. His particular reason in against the man in such manner is his stereotype to him. That he lived in France, Osvald truly knew the man didn’t like it at all. Given this, the man called him ‘a prodigal son’

Osvald adored beauty, loved glory, and particularly freedom. He stayed in France for so long and became a part of France artists’ enlightenment. This is shown by his choice of work which he fond of in France: painting.

Osvald is typically a youth who is brought up by modernity. He is a rational man. Simply this is drawn when he was sick, he went to the doctor. Osvald even couldn’t understand why a doctor who is known as a rational creature suspected that his illness, syphilis, was an inherit-sin.
At that time, Osvald’s belief in rationalism was tested. Osvald’s, who was first didn’t know –even it could be- didn’t care about his father’s past, at the time he knew it, he questioned himself about the truth of inherit-sin. He almost assured himself that it’s true: his illness was an inherit sin.

Unfortunately, at the end of the story, Osvald finally was defeated by the social reality. What a rational he was, he couldn’t avoid the fate that he was suffered from syphilis.
Thus, according to Ibsen, Osvald spirit to keep alive was killed, murdered by a fact that he must have been defeated by his fate. By syphilis which he inherited of his father.

2. Mrs. Helene Alving
Mrs. Alving is completely different from Osvald. Mrs. Alving didn’t live in spirit of beauty and freedom. On the contrary, Mrs. Alving was totally conscious what a putrid environment around her and her family.

But among the putrid environment, she chose to avoid it rather than against it. Owe to Freud’s words, she has a good self-defense-mechanism. She married, according to Pastor Manders indirect satire, a ‘loose man’, but she didn’t give up. She kept survive and she had never said anything to show it off. Her purpose was only to bring Osvald up without any bad influences of his father and not let Osvald touch a penny of his father’s wealth.

Unluckily, behind her consciousness of the environment, basically, Mrs. Alving is a defeated woman. Although she didn’t fond of her husband behavior, she even could do nothing when at last Regine, her stepdaughter, must stay with her. She even protected her from Pastor Manders when she though that a danger was threatening Regene.

The other evidence of Mrs. Alving’s defeat can also be seen at the end of the story. She had tried to separate Osvald from his father’s bad influences. But finally she failed. Osvald was suffered from syphilis, even he wanted to suicide. She even could take a decision when her son was dealing with the agony.

Thus, this is the irony. Although Mrs. Alving didn’t live in a “freedom of illusion” as the way Osvald did, she could do nothing. That she knew what a putrid the social reality around her is, it didn’t help her to win. She was defeated –and she must have been the most tragic character in this Ibsen’s Ghosts, it wasn’t Osvald.

3. Pastor Manders
As the way Ibsen used to do with his religious character, he located him as hypocrite man. In one side, Pastor Manders is described as a pastor who kept the orthodoxy and moral values. Almost each of his words described what a moralist that he is. He talked about the papers of deeds, his Sunday activity that was denied by Osvald impolitely, the behavior should be done, etc.

But, on the contrary, he loved Regine and tried to blur the fact that Regine is Osvald’s stepsister. This fact is never shown in the plays. But it is not difficult to be concluded since it is known that Pastor Manders is Jacob Engstrad’s ally.

Being Jacob Engstrad’s Ally, Pastor Manders was also involved in settling Regine in The Alving’s house. In this case, his purpose is quite different from Engstrad’s. He, indeed, loved Regine. This is only illustrated implicitly when he supported Jabob to get Regine home.

Pastor Manders is a materialistic man, as well. This fact is only shown implicitly. He strongly encouraged Mrs. Alving to have insurance for The Orphanage. It can’t be denied that he was disappointed when fire decayed The Orphanage. As much as possible he argued when Engstrad attacked him for his despair not getting insurance from the blamed Orphanage.

Given this, simply it can be said that Manders is a hypocrite. He is one part of putrid society, who finally defeated people like Osvald and his mother.


4. Jacob Engstrad
Jacob Engstrad is Manders’ ally. It means that he is the other man who created a putrid society who around Osvald. Engstrad was described as a poor carpenter, a wretch, who finally saw a probability of having money. He asked Regine to be adopted as the exchange for Mr. Alving’s debt to him.

Settling Regine in The Osvalds’ home, he also got money from Regine’s salary. It can be concluded that Engstrad is a character who is fond of profit from other people misery, nonetheless, he still loved her stepdaughter.

5. Regine Engstrad
Regine Engstrad is a “neutral” character. She is described as an innocent girl and doesn’t know anything about so many mysteries around her. She lived in her own world, separated, without she knew that there were many people organized her life.

In the other words, she is a victim, like Osvald and his mother were. The distinction is that, Regine is neither a girl like Osvald, who is very enthusiastic in running her life, nor his mother, who is very conscious of her environment. She is an ordinary, innocent girl and damn right to be a reality victim.

CONCLUSION
From the discussion above, we can see such characters who create the social reality at the age of Ibsen. A man’s struggle against his environment is supposed to be nothing. For whatever reason, he must have defeated. The owner of the authority that deserves to determine the result of a man’s struggle is social reality. So Ibsen came to the concept that however a man survives against the heredity and environment, it doesn’t change anything. Everything is determined by social reality.

Ibsen has also made his character complex personalities by showing both good and bad aspects of each. None is perfect, but none is villainous. This complexity makes each role challenging to actors, and requires subtlety in playing (Brockett, 19- : 294).

Furthermore, the supporters of realism suggested, if audiences did not like the pictures of contemporary life being shown on the stage, they should strive to change the society which had fur-fearless in his treatment of what he saw around him (Brockett, 19- : 289).

For the realist, then, change was the watchdog. Realism sought to strip away the façade of sentimental escapism pervading the theatre and to objectively examine and present man as he is. Understanding replaced moralizing; science replacing metaphysics. These were plays of ideas, not action; of criticizing tradition instead of perpetuating it. Realism propounded “art for truth’s sake,” not “art for the art’s sake” (Small, Norman M., 19- : 333).

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brockett, Oscar G.,The Theatre: An Introduction, 2nd edition ( )
Small, Norman M., The Making of Drama, (Boston: Holbrook Press, 19- )

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This paper arranged by Leny Nuzuliyanti, Muhamad Sulhanudin, Kinati Eliyana, in 2004 to fullfil "English Drama" subject in English Department of Diponegoro University. For any publication, please mention this source (the author and this site).

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