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Metamorfosis Ikal dalam Laskar Pelangi dan Sang Pemimpi

Written by eastern writer on Thursday, April 24, 2008

oleh Wiwik Hidayati

Setelah membaca laskar pelangi, yang saya rasakan adalah sebuah emosi jiwa. Ya, saya merasa masuk dalam ruang penceritaan. Saya hanyut di dalamnya. Saya ingin mengetahui bagaimana nasib tokoh-tokoh itu terutama Lintang dan Mahar. Kemudian saya lanjutkan dengan pembacaan novel sang Pemimpi, yang kata Andrea lanjutan dari kisah Laskar Pelangi.

Saya sedikit kecewa karena yang saya temukan orang lain. Bukan mereka yang membuat diri saya bergejolak ingin tahu. Lalu setelah itu, saya sadar bahwa Lintang dan Mahar sudah berakhir dengan ditutupnya lembar terakhir Laskar Pelangi.Lintang menjadi seorang supir sedangkan Mahar sedikit lebih beruntung, menjadi seorang budayawan lokal. Hasrat keingintahuan saya sebenarnya tidak terpuaskan. Tapi apalah daya, informasi yang diberikan penulis hanya sekadar itu, ala kadarnya.

Karya pertama dan kedua Andrea bagi saya bukan sepenuhnya Dwilogi. Alasannya simpel saja. Ikal yang ada pada karya pertama bukanlah Ikal yang ada pada tokoh kedua. Ikal dalam karya pertama hanya seorang tokoh yang keberadaannya tidak terlalu penting. Ada tiadanya Ikal takkan mengganggu isi cerita. Mungkin alasan tersebut bisa dipatahkan dengan argumen seperti ini. “Jika tidak ada ikal, tidak akan ada sang juru cerita yang akan mengantarkan sejarah laskar pelangi dalam sebuah memoar.” Benar. Hanya saja sang juru cerita bisa diganti orang lain.

Namun masalah yang kemudian muncul adalah karena ini memoar, sebuah kisah nyata. Jadi, Ikal tetap saja Ikal yang keberadaannya tidak bisa digantikan orang lain. Mungkin diantara kesebelas orang itu yang punya inisiatif atau obsesi menulis hanyalah seorang Ikal (Andrea Hirata Seman).

Alasan lain. Ikal dalam novel pertama tidak digambarkan berkarakteristik kuat sebagai tokoh yang menjual. Sebenarnya siapa tokoh yang ingin dimemoarkan? Tentu Ikal. Kenapa orang yang seharusnya menjadi tokoh utama seolah-olah tidak tampak. Ia tidak meresap di hati pembaca. Dalam novel itu, Ikal hanya seorang bocah yang memunyai sepuluh orang teman yang aneh-aneh. Ia seorang tokoh yang kurang mendapat simpati pembaca. Bukankah tokoh utama biasanya merebut hati pembaca?

Kemudian wajar jika pembaca Laskar Pelangi lebih mempertanyakan kondisi Lintang saat ini, atau Mahar barangkali daripada Ikal. Bukan karena keberadaan Ikal yang memang sudah diketahui. Tapi karena Lintang dan Mahar digambarkan lebih hidup daripada yang lain.

Selanjutnya, dalam sang Pemimpi, tiba-tiba Ikal ada secara penuh. Hanya dia satu-satunya tokoh dalam laskar pelangi yang diADAkan kembali. “Siapa Ikal yang berani-beraninya muncul di karya Andrea yang kedua?”. Dialah tokoh utama itu. Tanpa Ikal, sang Andrea sendiri, takkan ada Laskar Pelangi, sang Pemimpi, kemudian Edensor, dan Maryamah Karpov.

Dalam karya keduanya, Andrea memunculkan karakteristik tokoh Ikal yang harus dilihat. Ikal orang yang pandai, pekerja keras, dan sedikit nakal karena keremajaannya. Ia bukan lagi orang yang ikut ke sana ke mari tidak jelas seperti yang ada dalam Laskar Pelangi. Ialah tokoh sebenarnya tokoh.

Karya kedua Andrea memang berbeda. Awalnya saya menganggap bahwa Andrea dan Laskar Pelanginya tak lebih hanya mendapat durian runtuh. Jika tidak punya Lintang, Mahar, dan sekolah mengenaskan yang bersanding dengan lingkungan elit PN Timah, ia tidak bakal seberuntung sekarang. Ia punya modal awal cerita yang menarik. Di samping itu, ia juga tiba-tiba muncul saat masyarakat mulai bosan dengan keberadaan chikleet tenleet.

Saya menyukai Laskar Pelangi karena substansi ceritanya yang menyentuh sisi kemanusiaan. Sebuah kehidupan yang serasa tidak nyata. Saya tidak melihat ada kelebihan lain dalam novel tersebut kecuali ceritanya itu sendiri.

Namun setelah membaca sang pemimpi, saya mulai berpikir ulang. Saya sadar ada kepiawaian di sana. Jika tidak ditulis oleh jari yang lentur, pikiran seorang yang imajinatif; cerita Ikal, Arai dan Jimbron, hanya akan berakhir pada keranjang sampah. Namun, Andrea membuktikan itu. Cerita yang biasa bakal jadi luar biasa bila diramu dengan baik. Mungkin begitu juga dalam laskar pelangi.

Andrea dan budayanya

Ada pujian yang berlebihan pada Andrea. Ia bukan dari lingkungan sastra namun dapat membuat novel best seller. Tak hanya karya pertamanya, namun juga karya yang kedua.

Berbicara mengenai best seller, banyak novelis muda Indonesia yang bukan dari lingkungan sastra tapi karyanya terjual laris manis. Sebaliknya, tidak mudah menemukan karya yang dibuat oleh kalangan sastra yang dapat diterima masyarakat luas.

Best seller tidaknya karya tidak hanya ditentukan hanya dari novelnya itu sendiri. Banyak kalangan yang berjasa. Di sini bisnis pun bermain. Dengan sedikit taktik karya bisa menjadi fenomenal. Misalnya saja dengan promosi besar-besar di media, launching dengan mengundang artis, atau bisa juga mencari komentator untuk ombustment.

Sedangkan dalam novel Andrea, saya lihat murni dari karya. Kelihaian bercerita menjadi kunci kesuksesannya. Kelihaian itu tak serta merta turun dari langit. Lingkungan dan budayanya sangat berpengaruh.

Ia orang Belitong, berdarah Melayu. Coba tengok ke belakang. Masyarakat tentu tidak awam dengan sastrawan Melayu seperti HAMKA, Marah Roesli, Muchtar Loebis, Iwan Simatupang dll. Jadi wajar jika Andrea pun seperti itu. Orang melayu terkenal pintar bercerita.

“Pendidikan di Sumatra itu sangat berbeda dengan di Jawa. Guru di sana seperti seorang teman. Dia hanya bertugas memfasilitasi. Orang Sumatra yang sukses itu bisa sangat sukses Karena cara mendidiknya tadi. Contohnya saja Andrea,” kata Aulia Muhammad dalam diskusi “Membaca Geliat penyair muda” di Fakultas Sastra Undip. Ia seorang pemred suaramerdeka.com yang juga bergelut dalam dunia sastra. Sebagai seorang yang lahir di Sumatra, tentu ia tahu bagaimana sistem pendidikan di sana.

Dalam Laskar pelangi maupun sang Pemimpi sebenarnya juga bisa terlihat jelas bagaimana pendidikan di sana. Tak jauh beda dengan yang dikatakan Aulia. Dalam novel Sang Pemimpi, Andrea menjelaskan bagaimana cintanya ia dengan sastra. Itu tak lain karena gurunya. Sang guru mengajarkan sastra sekaligus menghipnotisnya untuk mencintai bidang itu. Ia membuat pelajaran itu penuh dengan kepesonaan. Tak hanya teori yang diajarkan tapi ia membebaskan sang murid pada imajinasi-imajinasinya sendiri. Jadi, benarkah Andrea Hirata Seman benar-benar awam dalam dunia sastra?

*Wiwik Hidayati, a college student in faculty of letters, Diponegoro University, now she on a last semester, majoring Indonesian Literature. Visit her blog at http://heedawiwix.blogspot.com

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Blogging with Snapbomb and get money

Written by eastern writer on Thursday, April 24, 2008

This is a great opportunities for blogger in all over the world. You may ever heard about get paid to blog program in which you'll be paid from your blogging activities. Now you do this with Snapbomb. At Snapbomb, you would not only get money but also you've help other people/blogger build buzz or links for their sites/blogs.

Blogging is a kind of social networking, one interact with other, helping each other: other need buzz, you'll help them spread their blog and making any kindly review for them. What you've done to help other here, of course would not be free, you'll be paid. This is an emphatic today and future blog marketing.

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Best window treatments

Written by eastern writer on Thursday, April 24, 2008

A window blind is a covering for a window , usually attached to the interior side of a window. It simply refers to some device to hide from sight (thus "blinding" the viewer) or to reduce sunlight. There are several kinds of blinds, including: Slat blinds and Solid blinds.

This is a great time for you get an extra discount on each product offer. Take advantage off this special now before it expires.

Blind Express have negotiated with major manufacturers to get a better price on their products without the advertising cost, allowing us to pass the savings directly on to you, so you can get the best window treatments for your money! These products are offered under the "Our Brand" manufacturer category. Great special coupons on our Coupon page.

Blindsexpress.com offer blinds, shades and window treatments in an extremely wide range of style, fabric and texture. Find great products like Duette Cellular Shades by Hunter Douglas, Wooden Blinds by Levolor ranging from 1" Wood Blinds to 2 1/2" Wood Blinds, real Norman Wood Shutters or Faux Wood Shutters or Graber's Crystalpleat Cellular , Vertical Blinds and featuringthe new Traditions Wood Blind Series.

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Comparing Imagery in Conrad and Hardy

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 23, 2008

Writing shortly after the death of Joseph Conrad, Richard Aldington credited the impressionistic novelist with both a "brooding poetic fire" and "powers of evocation" greater than those of another senior British novelist, Thomas Hardy. Aldington's casual dismissal of Hardy as merely a regional novelist (recording characters and customs fast becoming extinct, but unable to tell a good story) seems somewhat surprising from a late twentieth-century perspective. However, since Conrad began to publish fiction at the very time that Hardy ceased, Aldington was doubtless responding to the biases of his own generation against the tastes of the previous generation. Aldington finds Hardy's chief defect to be his style, which he pronounces "never particularly beautiful and . . . sometimes almost clumsy" (8). In contrast, he feels that Conrad's prose is of a higher quality — 'wondrous' and 'mysterious' — because of its power to make the reader visualise the scene described. In other words, he evaluates Conrad's imagery as being of a higher denotative as well as a higher connotative quality than Hardy's.

While Aldington's essay may be categorized as something between an appreciation or eulogy for Conrad and a depreciation of Hardy, Aldington's method is largely anecdotal; he makes little rational justification for what amounts to a purely personal preference . In contrast, in the next decade Richard Gordon Lillard addressed himself to the question of "Irony in Hardy and Conrad" more analytically, concluding that "Hardy's irony is more objective, more systematic, more dramatic, Conrad's more introspective, more reflective, more psychological." Lillard observes that Hardy works from a formal, logical, almost architectonic plan, Conrad from feeling and connotation. Put another way, Hardy was by nature a story-teller and observer of human nature; "Conrad's vision," as Arthur Kay remarks, "was instinctively symbolic."

In their applications of the techniques of symbolism and imagery Hardy and Conrad are likewise different. Hardy enriches his descriptions and narrative commentary with allusions to great deeds, thoughts, and persons, to music, art, philosophy, and mythology to create a sense of the eternal lurking behind the aspirations and passions of his Wessex characters, whose significance as individuals Time works to diminish. Conrad's method is quite different, more recognizably Romantic and less Classical than Hardy's. For the most part, Conrad couples the general symbol with a straight-forward simile: his symbolic patterns draw their energy from the very nature of things, from the ancient elements of earth, air, fire, and water, from darkness and light and all the colours in between, from the great chain of being itself, connecting the lowliest beast and tormented devil to the noblest man and the enigmatic creator of all. Whereas Hardy is overt in his use of images and symbols, Conrad in his speaks what Shakespeare terms "a kind Of excellent dumb discourse." In his novels, Hardy attempts to state a meaning through his symbols; in his novels, Conrad is content to imply rather than define. Hardy's symbolism is neither so elemental nor so readily apprehensible as Conrad's; often Hardy's symbols are oblique, shrouded in garments which only informed readers may see through, a legacy in narrative technique that Hardy received from his reading the works of the erudite George Eliot.

Source: www.victorianweb.org

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Love and the Discovery of Self in Hardy and Wilde

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 23, 2008

The Importance of Being Earnest and The Mayor of Casterbridge both support the assertion that the act of falling in love begins in attraction to another but results in the discovery of self. Jack/Ernest Worthing and Michael Henchard both discover who they truly are at the end of these respective works. Henchard through self-realization and Worthing through knowledge derived from others learn who they are.

Michael Henchard of The Mayor of Casterbridge has made many mistakes throughout his life that bring him emotional suffering and eventually contribute to his demise alone and unfriended. Beginning with the sale of his wife two decades earlier, Henchard's life advances him to political power and prosperity before it spirals downwards after he has to face the consequences of his earlier mistakes. In the best interests of their (apparent) daughter, Susan and Michael agree to marry again. Too late he discovers the joys of marriage and parenthood while maintaining a successful business and political career — all without alcohol, which destroyed his marriage initially. Later he learns that Elizabeth-Jane "to be none of his" and realizes that he is a childless man, leaving him in what Hardy describes as "an emotional void" (145). For part of his story, Michael Henchard is truly in love with his wife Susan and in consequence makes many self-discoveries; but with her death and without a child of his own, Henchard feels empty. As a punishment or retribution for his misdeeds Henchard makes many demands in his will, the clauses of which all follow from the premise that "no man remember me."

In contrast to Michael Henchard, Jack/Ernest Worthing is well-off; but he too makes mistakes. However, because he resolves his relationship problems by acquiring self-knowledge, he does not have to pay for his errors — this, after all, a comedy! The key to self-knowledge here, however, is information about his history, which he acquires by means of a handbag that had been misplaced in a railway station. Arguably, by falling in love with Gwendolen Fairfax, Jack Worthing learns that he is Algernon's older brother and indeed has the name Ernest — thereby fulfilling Gwendolen's dreams of marrying a man with that name while simultaneously fulfilling Lady Bracknell's expectations about his having the appropriate family background to be her daughter's husband. Throughout the play Jack's love for Gwendolen grows and eventually causes his discovery of who he truly is through the revelations of Lady Bracknell and Miss Prism.

Michael Henchard of The Mayor of Casterbridge and Ernest Worthing in The Importance of Being Earnest both come to realizations about themselves, but at different levels. By his rekindled love, Henchard realizes his past mistakes and seeks reconciliation, proving that he is (as Hardy pronounces on the title-page) Michael Henchard, the Mayor of Casterbridge, A Man of Character. Worthing literally learns his identity, disovering that what he has made up is at least in part real. Without his love, Gwendolen, Jack/Ernest would never have had the opportunity to speak with Lady Bracknell about his having been found by Mr. Cardew. Thus, in both works falling in love leads protagonists to many self-discoveries.

Source: www.victorianweb.org

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Web 2.0 guide

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 23, 2008

This is an interesting tactics used by Tim O'Reilly like suing non-profits, resorting to racist tactics and getting his old boys networks to do his dirty work. The old boys social networking benefits tremendously from the O'Reilly platform as the is how the end up getting their tap jobs and projects at major silicon valley companies.

Presently web 2.0 is buzz word that O'Reilly and the old boys want to protect for themselves so that they can position themselves as experts and gouge customers by selling them their expertise in web 2.0. O'Reilly talks about web 2.0 which about the free flow of information but he operates an almost Gestapo like regiment that does anything to squeeze a penny.

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Thomas Hardy resource library on the net

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 23, 2008

Thomas Hardy was an English novelist, short story writer, and poet of the naturalist movement. The bulk of his work, set mainly in the semi-imaginary county of Wessex, delineates characters struggling against their passions and circumstances. Hardy's poetry, first published in his fifties, has come to be as well regarded as his novels, especially after The Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.

Hardy claimed poetry as his first love, and published collections until his death in 1928. Although not as well received by his contemporaries as his novels, Hardy's poetry has been applauded considerably in recent years, in part because of the influence on Philip Larkin. However, critically it is still not regarded as highly as his prose.

Most of his poems deal with themes of disappointment in love and life, and mankind's long struggle against indifference to human suffering. Some, like The Darkling Thrush and An August Midnight, appear as poems about writing poetry, because the nature mentioned in them gives Hardy the inspiration to write those.

The following links and sites are related to Hardy and his work:

  1. Thomas Hardy Society (http://www.hardysociety.org)
  2. Thomas Hardy on Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hardy)
  3. Thomas Hardy Resource Library (http://pages.ripco.net/~mws/hardy.html)
  4. Thomas Hardy: An Overview (http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/hardy/index.html)

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Fatalism In The Works Of Thomas Hardy

Written by eastern writer on Tuesday, April 22, 2008

Title: Fatalism in the Works of Thomas Hardy
Author: Albert Pettigrew Elliott
Publisher: New York, Russell & Russell, 1966 [©1935]
Editions: 8 Editions
136 page

More about this book visit http://www.jstor.org/pss/2911853

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Clothing for Women

Written by eastern writer on Tuesday, April 22, 2008

Hey girl, I have a great information for you about clothing for woman. This is a place where you can browse a lot of woman clothing on the net. You may have dreaming a cloth like your idol wear on the television with the newest style.

Are you looking for the latest Fashion Trends? Want to know the updated styles? Don't worry, ShopWiki will provide you with a complete list of shopping options. Fashion is ever changing and fluid. It's hard to keep up with the pant cuts, skirt lengths and dress silhouettes. Check the latest fashion trends. This page is devoted to unearthing the latest trends and servicing long standing fashion currents.

For you who suffer from this problem: a closet jammed full of clothes yet nothing to wear? Perhaps it's time to start considering shopping for complete outfits rather than a piece at a time. Get a lot of benefits from buying a complete outfit, such as colors will always match, makes dressing in the morning a no brainer, travel becomes easier as the options are preordained and of course may save you money. See the women's complete outfits

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Perlukah Faktualitas dalam Cerpen?

Written by eastern writer on Monday, April 21, 2008

Cerita pendek atau yang biasa disebut “cerpen” sebagai salah satu genre sastra memiliki keunikan tersendiri. Ia bisa menceritakan pengalaman penulis dan bisa juga hanya merupakan imajinasi entah-berantah yang sengaja direka oleh pengarang. Seperti karya sastra pada umumnya, batasan fakta dan fiksi dalam cerpen tidak jelas. Bahkan jika mengacu pada wacana postmodern, seperti kajian teks ala Roland Barthes (Baca: Merayakan Kematian Pengarang, Mission Impossible: Menggugat Missi Pengarang dalam Karya Sastra) fakta dalam karya sastra, tidaklah penting.

Tapi bagaimana jika cerpen itu menyajikan sesuatu yang faktual. Ia disusun dari fakta, peristiwa yang benar-benar disaksikan ataupun dialami langsung oleh pengarang. Seperti yang dikisahkan oleh Rosidi dalam bedah cerpen “Opera Zaman” di Komunitas Sendang Mulyo Semarang, Rabu (29/11) malam.

Eros, panggilan Rosidi, membeberkan latar belakang penciptaan cerpennya yang berjudul “Ngadikan”. Cerita dalam cerpen itu diakuinya benar-benar dialami penulis. Tokoh-tokoh dalam cerpen adalah tokoh yang sebenarnya. Tidak ada yang disamarkan. Dan tokoh saya dalam cerpen itu, juga mengacu pada saya pengarang.

“Saya sangat terkesan oleh Ngadikan yang memiliki semangat hidup yang luar biasa,” ucapnya bersemangat. Ngadikan adalah nama teman seprofesi Eros sebagai pembuat bata di tempat tinggalnya, di sebuah desa di Kudus.

Lalu apa perlunya pengarang menceritakan perihal latar belakang penciptaan karyanya, bahkan mengklaim bahwa cerita yang ditulis adalah benar-benar yang dialami?

“Inilah yang menjadi penyakit cerpenis kita. Pengarang kita itu malas. Termasuk si Rosidi ini. Wong pencetak boto ya di ceritak-ceritake,” kritik Eko Prasetyo Utomo. Prasetyo adalah cerpenis asal Semarang yang beberapa karyanya telah diterbitkan di beberapa media lokal dan nasional. Beberapa kumpulan cerpennya juga sudah dibukukan.

Menurut Prasetyo apa yang dilakukan oleh Rosidi tidak menarik, karena ia menceritakan sesuatu dengan apa adanya. “Cerpen yang baik itu, ketika membacanya akan membekas. Kita selalu teringat. Sayang di sini cerita disajikan secara linier” ungkap Prasetyo, setengah kecewa.

Selain itu Prasetyo juga menilai judul Opera Zaman yang dipakai dalam kumpulan cerpen (kumcer) itu kurang menarik. Menurutnya lebih menarik jika Opera Wadas dijadikan sebagai judul kumcer. Opera Wadas adalah salah satu judul cerpen dalam kumcer.

Saya yang waktu itu mengikuti diskusi, mengajukan ke salah seorang penulis dalam kumpulan cerpen Opera Zaman yang kebetulan hadir. Saya sepakat dengan apa yang disampaikan oleh Prasetyo bahwa sebagian besar cerpen dalam kumpulan cerpen itu disampaikan secara konvensional. Terlebih mendengar pengakuan dari Eros yang mengatakan bahwa apa yang ditulisnya adalah fakta.

“Jika Roland Barthes mengatakan pengarang telah mati, maka anda di sini telah menghidupkannya. Dengan adanya pengakuan anda itu, telah mereduksi pemaknaan pembaca. Karya sastra yang harusnya memiliki makna yang universal telah terbelenggu oleh ruang dan waktu. Di luar pernyataan anda itu, cerpen anda tidak memiliki makna apa-apa” kritik saya.

Bagi saya tidak selayaknya penulis merecoki pemaknaan pembaca. Ketika ia selesai menulis, teks itu sudah sepenuhnya menjadi milik pembaca. Biarkan pembaca yang akan memaknai teks itu.

Meski sepakat dengan beberapa pandangan Prasetyo, namun saya menyampaikan bahwa dirinya terkesan memaksakan menilai karya-karya dalam kumpulan cerpen yang terlalu faktual menjadi tidak menarik. “Saya seorang guru, tapi saya tak menceritakan itu dalam cerpen saya” ucapnya.

Saya sepakat jika Prasetyo mengatakan itu untuk mendorong penulis lebih mengeksplorasi idenya tidak sebatas berhenti pada hal-hal yang faktual. Namun jika kemudian memberikan anjuran agar pengarang menulis di luar kesehariannya, ini jelas tidak tepat. Bukankah akan lebih baik jika kita menulis sesuatu yang paling dekat dengan kita, sesuatu yang kita alami. Bagaimana jika kita menulis tentang sesuatu yang kita sendiri tidak mengetahuinya?

Saya curiga Prasetyo menggunakan pendekatan yang berbeda dengan gaya yang dipakai oleh sebagian pengarang dalam kumcer itu yang sebagian besar menggunakan style realis. Sementara-mungkin- Praetyo kurang suka dengan gaya itu -bisa jadi ia menyukai karya surealis.

“Oke kalau anda mengatakan jika cerpen yang faktual itu tidak menarik, mengapa anda menanyakan kebenaran dari fakta yang disampaikan cerpen itu. Terus, kalau kemudian anda mengatakan penulis kurang mengeksplorasi, lantas eksplorasi semacam apa. Jika kemudian eksplorasi yang anda maksud itu kemudian mematikan gaya pengarang, yang realis itu kemudian beralih ke surealis, jelas ini sangat memaksakan”

“Saya tak bermaksud mematikan kreativitas penulis. Justru dengan ejekan ini saya harapkan penulis mau terus berproses,” jawab Praestyo.

Eksplorasi yang dimaksudkan oleh Prasetyo adalah perlunya penulis menggali sesuatu yang ingin disampaikan dari sudut pandang yang paling menarik. “Misalnya Eros mengeksplorasi lumpur itu. Ada apa dengan lumpur itu.. Ini bisa dieksplorasi lebih menarik, ketimbang menceritakan kisah tukang bata itu. Pram-Pramoedya Ananta Toer- juga penulis realis. Tapi eksplorasinya menarik,” terangnya.

Diskusi bedah buku kumpulan cerpen “Opera Zaman” itu diadakan oleh Komunitas Sendang Mulyo bekerja sama dengan Komunitas Merapi. Sebagai panitia pelaksana LPM Manunggal dan komunitas sastra Histeria. Hadir dalam diskusi itu Rosidi selaku salah seorang penulis, Eko Prasetyo Utomo selaku pembedah, Elissiti dan Gendhot Wukir yang mewakili editorial dan komunitas Merapi selaku penggagas kegiatan ini.

Cerita dalam kumcer Opera Zaman itu merupakan karya para anggota komunitas milis Merapi. Sebelumnya ada sekitar 200-an naskah, kemudian dipilih 10 terbaik. Cerpen ini menyajikan tema tentang petualangan. Buku ini dijual seharga Rp 20.000. Sedianya hasil penjualannya akan disumbangkan untuk pengembangan pendidikan anak.

This artcile was written by Muhamad Sulhanudin. Visit the writer's homepage at http://hanyaudin.blogspot.com

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a special telephone with built-in spy bug

Written by eastern writer on Monday, April 21, 2008

Phone-007 is a special telephone with built-in spy bug, which allows user to record phone conversation and ambient sound in Phone-007 system. By using this tool, the owner of the phone will be able to secretly listen in from any other phone, playback all the recordings online and tracking call logs.

Phone-007 looks and works like an ordinary phone, but it can record every call made on the phone without user knowing it. It can also records ambient sound such as funny noise or conversation near the phone. The recording will start when ambient sound volume above threshold level set by user. The ambient sound can be recorded no matter the phone is in use or not.

Once a recording starts, user will get notified immediately by email, text message, or phone call based on user’s setting. While the recording is in progress, user can listen in by either picking up the notification phone call and eavesdropping right away, or calling local Phone-007 access number from any phone. In addition to eavesdropping in real time, user can login to my.PurpleGoods.com to hear all the prior recording sessions through browser. Learn more about Phone-007 at http://www.purplegoods.com

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Desire Under The Elms : a Summary

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 18, 2008

a story by Eugene O'Neil

The land is the most essential asset to any farmer. In the play Desire Under the Elms, this is also the case. The land in the play is the central theme, it holds all of the elements of the play together. It was the object of greed as well. The farm was the source of greed for three of the characters in the play, Ephraim Cabot, his son Eben, and his new wife Abbie. Peter and Simon focused their greed on the fields of gold in the West, primarily in California.

One of the ways in which Eugene O'Neill made the land symbolic in the play was through the use of stones. Throughout the play stones, and the walls they created, are mentioned by both Ephraim Cabot and others. The land on this farm was very poor from the descriptions Ephraim Cabot gives us. The land, from his account, was covered with stones. In order for him to farm his land, he had to remove all the stones and decided to make walls with them. This was hard work, but Ephraim Cabot did not mind the back-breaking work because he felt that God was hard, and this was part of His plan.

To Peter and Simon, the stone walls were symbolic in their own way. They represented a sense of confinement and imprisonment. Ephraim Cabot was a man of little or no real
emotion. He was very hard on his children and his first wife. As a result Eben, Simon, and Peter hated their father. They felt trapped into doing his wishes, and they saw no real way out. To Peter and Simon, the stone walls built around the farm by their father symbolized their imprisonment for life. This point is clearly shown when Peter and Simon leave to go find gold in California. In their jubilation upon leaving they say, "The halter's broke-the harness is busted-the fence bars is down-the stone walls air crumblin' an' tumblin'!" (O'Neill 1076).

Eben makes an interesting reference to the stone walls as well. He believes that the stone walls caused the lack of caring and emotion towards their mother by Peter and Simon. He states, "An' makin' walls-stone atop o' stone-makin' walls till yer heart's a stone ye heft up out o' the way o' growth onto a stone wall t' wall in yer heart!"(O'Neill 1069). What he is really saying is the fact that the many years of hard work on the farm have made Simon, Peter, and of course their father Ephraim, immune to emotion or caring. All they knew was work, and it was work that had made them and their father not care about their first mother.

The land also is symbolic in other ways as well. Peter, Ephraim, and Simon, as most farmers, see the land as a thing of beauty. This can be seen in several places in the
play. O'Neill uses the beauty of the land to describe things completely unrelated to the land. When Abbie tries to seduce Eben she uses nature to prove her point by saying, "H'aint the sun strong an' hot? Ye kin feel it burnin' into the earth-Nature-makin' thin's grow-bigger Ôn' bigger-burnin' inside ye-making' ye want t' grow-into somethin' else-till ye're jined with it-an' it's your'n-but it owns ye, too-an' makes ye grow bigger-like a tree-like them elums-"(O'Neill 1081). Eben uses the beauty of the land to describe Minnie, his girlfriend in the beginning of the play. He says, "her mouth's wa'm, her arms're wa'm, she smells like a wa'm plowed field, she's purty..."(O'Neill
1071).

Ephraim also uses the land as a symbol to describe heaven. He describes it by stating, "The sky. Feels like a wa'm field up thar."(O'Neill 1082). Here Ephraim is describing his old age and what he feels heaven would be like. Peter and Simon even imagine California as being not unlike their farm in New England. In the early part of the play they imagine California as "fields o' gold!" and "Fortunes layin' just atop o' the ground waitin' t' be picked!"(O'Neill 1067). What is ironic here is that they imagine gold in California being just like the stones in the fields of their father's farm. In California they would be picking up stones just as they had done in New England.

Another part of the landscape of the farm, and one of the most important, are the two elm trees on each side of the house. The elms represent the spirit of Eben's mother.
Ephraim gives a clue to this when he leaves his party and in the yard says, "Ye kin feel it droppin' off the elums, climbin' up the roof, sneakin' down the chimney, pokin' in the corners! They's no peace in houses, they's no rest livin' with folks. Somethin's always livin' with ye. I'll go t' the barn an' rest a spell."(O'Neill 1094). This statement has two very important aspects. First, it shows that the spirit of his former wife is still in the house. Moreover, it shows Ephraim's close ties to the land, and illuminates the fact that he can not share his life with other people. He feels that the animals in the barn can understand him better than any human since both the animals and Ephraim are close to the land, and fail to show emotion.

The most important aspect of the land throughout the play deals with greed. Ephraim Cabot is an extremely possessive man. He even states that he would rather burn the farm to the ground than give it away. Everyone in the play wants the farm, despite the fact that when Ephraim first bought it, many people considered it worthless. He removed all the stones from the fields, planted them, and raised his animals. It is as a result of these years of hard work that makes the farm so attractive to everyone, and is in fact the reason why everyone wants it. Ephraim felt that it was
God's will for him to have to go through hardships in working the land. God wanted him to be a hard man. And Ephraim felt that it was not right for anyone to have the
luxury of receiving a farm when he had to build it with his own blood and sweat. This was not what God wanted. And in the end of the play, God did in fact win.

Eben feels that he is the rightful heir to the land. Abbie, through lies and chicanery, feels that she is the rightful owner of the farm. Ephraim feels that the land will always be his, and not belong to anyone else. Peter and Simon felt that they were entitled to the land due to the years of blood and sweat they had donated to the land and their father's wishes. In fact, Simon, Peter and Eben hope that
Ephraim is dead when he leaves to get married in the first scene of the play. And in the last line of the play, even the sheriff admits that he would like to have the farm as well. It is this greed over land that effects every major character in the play.

The true importance of the land becomes very clear by the end of the play . It is what drives all of the characters. It affects their feelings, emotions, and outlook on life. It is all that they know and care for. Being farmers, it is their livelihood and a source of pride, at least for Ephraim. It can also be used to show beauty, as well as loneliness. The land is life, and the land is death. The land understands the farmer, just as the farmer understands the land. To the farmer the land is tangible, while emotions and personal relationships may seem immaterial. Throughout history, land has been a source of greed and power in many civilizations, and it can create social status, as it is a limited commodity. Land is more than likely what brought Ephraim Cabot's ancestors to America. They, as he, saw the true value of the land. But more importantly, the farmer who lives off the land is in a position to understand it in a way that is far deeper than its material value, and this true of Ephraim Cabot as well. For these reasons the land in the play has a most significant importance as well as a symbolic value.

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Drug rehabilitation info

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 18, 2008

Overcoming drugs and alcohol addiction actually would be not easy. But, we have to help people who are getting addicted to alcohol and drugs. RehabInfo.net is dedicated to providing unique and impartial information for people looking for help overcoming drugs and alcohol addictions.

In many cases, we have helped people find the drug or alcohol treatment center most appropriate for their particular circumstances. In addition to treatment centers specializing in illegal drug abuse, even more treatment centers now offer treatment programs for the newest forms of addiction: prescription drug addictions.

This section is dedicated to helping people seeking aid from the prescription drug addictions that have caused so much suffering in recent years. One of the most treacherous aspects of prescription drug addiction is that it is often the result of a perfectly valid and justifiable prescription by a licensed physician.

Get more information about these topic drug rehab, marijuana rehab, cocaine rehab, heroin rehabilitation, crystal meth rehab, drug rehab statistics

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Islam, the Qur'an and the Arabic Literature

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 16, 2008

Elsayed M.H Omran
Vol XIV No. 1 , Spring 1988

Since the advent of Islam and the revelation of the Qur'an in the early years of the seventh century AD, the Muslim Holy Book has been the subject of many extensive analytical studies. The focus of the great majority of these studies has been the theological and legislative aspects of the Holy Book, for the Qur'an provides Muslims with detailed guidance on their everyday problems. Together with the sayings, actions, and recommendations of Muhammad, the Qur'an has been the ultimate source of legal authority for Muslims over the past fourteen centuries. Muslim scholars have painstakingly examined, analyzed and interpreted the various verses of the Holy Book, detailing the requirements the Qur'an imposes on Muslims in order for them to achieve spiritual purity. Thus, in addition to its legislative and theological value, the Qur'an has also served as a source of spiritual guidance for the followers of Islam.


There is, however, another aspect of the Qur'an which has received far less attention than its theological and legislative guidance, namely its linguistic significance, for the Qur'an was undoubtedly the first book to be composed in Arabic. The advent of Islam and the revelation of the Qur'an have had far-reaching effects on the status, the content, and the structure of the Arabic language. [1] This paper will examine the linguistic influence of the Qur'an and the impact of its revelation on Arabic. It will be argued that, while the Arabic language was extremely effective as the medium for the revelation of the Holy Qur'an and the dissemination of the new faith, the language benefited enormously from the new role it acquired with the advent of Islam.

Islam and Arabic: a unique relationship

The revelation of the Qur'an in Arabic set the scene for a unique and lasting relationship between the language and Islam. On the one hand, Arabic provided a very effective medium for communicating the message of the religion. On the other hand, Islam helped Arabic to acquire the universal status which it has continued to enjoy since the Middle Ages, emerging as one of the principal world languages. It has been argued that Arabic has not simply remained 'ancilliary to Islam' [2] but that it has also been significant as a means of 'cultural and national revival in the Arabic-speaking countries.' [3] Arabic is a rich and expressive language and has played an important role in the cultural preservation of the Arabic-speaking people. However, without the bond it has had with Islam, Arabic would probably not have undergone the internal revolution it did, nor expanded beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula with such speed and magnitude.

The relationship of Islam and the Qur'an to Arabic involves more than just the use of a language to communicate a divine message. There are a number of factors which set this relationship apart from that which exists between other holy books and the languages in which they appeared, for Arabic has come to be closely associated with Islam, and in this way has acquired a semi-official status. It is implicit that anyone professing Islam cannot ignore the role Arabic plays in his faith. Embracing Islam, therefore, entails exposure to, and familiarity with, the Arabic language. Such familiarity is necessitated by the fact that memorization and recitation of Qur'anic verses in their original language is necessary for the performance of the daily rituals. Other holy books may have had an impact on the languages in which they originally appeared, but the impact that Islam and the Qur'an have had on Arabic appears to be unique in its extent and durability. It has often been the case that a holy book appears in a given language and is then translated into other languages, in which it continues to be read and recited during the performance of rituals, but, in the case of the Qur'an, although it has been translated into many languages, these translations cannot replace the original language as a language of worship, which continues to be Arabic for all Muslims, native speakers and others.

Other holy books also came to be associated with specific languages, such as the Torah with Hebrew, and, perhaps less intimately, the New Testament with Greek and Latin. However, the nature of the relationship between the Qur'an and Arabic is still unique for reasons to be given below.

The Qur'an: Muhammad's strongest argument

It has often been argued that the Qur'an is not only the first book, and the highest linguistic achievement, of the Arabic language, but that it is also Muhammad's strongest argument against those who doubted his Message. The question that needs to be addressed here concerns the reason why a holy book, a composition of language, should be hailed as Islam's (and Muhammad's) strongest argument. [4] The point has sometimes been made that other prophets had more tangible miracles. In the case of Muhammad, however, the miracle was not comparable to Moses' staff or Christ's healing powers, but was simply the expression in language of the Qur'an.

To understand why Muhammad's strongest argument or miracle was a book, the Holy Qur'an, it is necessary to understand the role language and linguistic composition played in the lives of the pre-Islamic Arabs. It is also important to understand the nature of the Arabic language itself during the pre-Islamic period. This understanding will help to show why the revelation of the Qur'an through Muhammad found attentive ears among his contemporaries, who not only were articulate users of the language but held those skilled in the arts of linguistic composition in high esteem. [5]

The role played by language in pre-Islamic Arabia

Before the rise of Islam, Arabic was mainly a spoken language with an oral literature of elaborate poetry and, to a lesser extent, prose. [6] Writing had not yet fully developed and memorization was the most common means of preserving the literature. [7] Both poetry and prose in the pre-Islamic era dealt with a rather limited range of topics which included in the case of poetry praise, eulogy (panegyric), defamation, and love, and in the case of prose superstition, legends, parables, and wisdom tales. [8]

Pre-Islamic Arabs took great pride in their language and in articulate and accurate speech, the latter being one of the main requisites for social prominence. On this particular point, Professor Hitti writes:No people in the world manifest such enthusiastic admiration for literary expression and are moved by the word, spoken or written, as the Arabs. Hardly any language seems capable of exercising over the minds of its users such an irresistible influence as Arabic. [9]

What made this phenomenon even more remarkable is the near absence of other forms of artistic expression such as music, painting, and drama. The sole elaborate form of artistic expression available to the pre-Islamic Arabs was the art of the spoken word. [10] Eloquence and the ability to compose articulate prose or poetry were foremost among the traits of a worthy bedouin. [11]

Other such traits included horsemanship, courage, and hospitality.With its very nature and structure, its abundance of imagery, vocabulary, and figures of speech, the Arabic language lent itself to elaborate poetic composition and sonorous prose. The tremendous quantity of poetry that we have inherited attests to the significant role language played in pre-Islamic Arabia. In fact, the role language and poetry played was so important that other fields of study which developed during the first centuries of the Islamic era were greatly influenced by the then established study of poetic literature. [12]

The importance of poetry for that era is clearly manifest in the writings of scholars from subsequent centuries. Al-Jahiz (d. 869), for instance, quotes poetic works in his famous al-Bayan wa l-Tabyin. [13] The grammarian al-Asma'i (d. c. 830) used the term fasih (articulate) in reference to the poets whom he quotes. The following quotation from Ibn Rashiq further illustrates the importance attached to linguistic skills in pre-Islamic Arabia. He writes:

Whenever a poet emerged in an Arab tribe, other tribes would come to congratulate, feasts would be prepared, the women would join together on lutes as they do at weddings, and old and young men would all rejoice at the good news. The Arabs used to congratulate each other only on the birth of a child and when a poet rose among them. [14]

In his 'Uyun al-Akhbar, Ibn Qutayba defined poetry as follows:

Poetry is the mine of knowledge of the Arabs and the book of their wisdom, the archive of their history and the reservoir of their epic days, the wall that defends their exploits, the impassable trench that preserves their glories, the impartial witness for the day of judgement. [15]

Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), a notable scholar of the fourteenth century, remarked on the importance of poetry in Arab life:

It should be known that Arabs thought highly of poetry as a form of speech. Therefore, they made it the archives of their history, the evidence for what they considered right and wrong, and the principal basis of reference for most of their sciences and wisdom. [16]

Almost four centuries earlier, Ibn Faris (d. 1005) elaborated on the same theme, but went further to comment on the quality of the poetry that was composed during the pre-Islamic era:

Poetry is the archive of the Arabs; in it their genealogies have been preserved; it sheds light on the darkest and strangest things found in the Book of God and in the tradition of God's apostle and that of his companions. Perhaps a poem may be luckier than another, and one poem sweeter and more elegant than another, but none of the ancient poems lacks its degree of excellence. [17]

Such was the role that the spoken word played in the life of pre-Islamic Arabs. With the emphasis placed on eloquent and articulate speech, the prominent position occupied by those who had the talent for linguistic composition, and the pride the early Arabs took in their language, it is little wonder that the Qur'an was revealed in the most eloquent, articulate, and elaborate style the Arabic language has known. The Qur'an has without doubt provided a level of linguistic excellence unparalleled in the history of the Arabic language. Theologians explain this phenomenon as God's wisdom in addressing the articulate Arabs through the medium in which they were most adept and with which they felt most comfortable. The effectiveness of the Qur'an was thus ensured by the fact that it represented a level of eloquence unattainable even by their most eloquent speakers. The Qur'an remains a book of inimitable quality, not only from a linguistic, but also from and intellectual, point of view. When Muhammad was challenged by his fellow countrymen to present a miracle, in keeping with the tradition of other prophets, he presented the Qur'an to them. The inimitability of the Qur'an is repeatedly emphasized in the Holy Book itself. Thus the Qur'an challenges the disbelievers:

And if you are in doubt as to what we have revealed, then produce a sura like unto it. (2: 23) [18]

A yet stronger challenge occurs in another chapter:

Or do they say: 'He forged it'? Say: 'Bring then a sura like unto it and call [to your aid] anyone you can. ' (10: 38)

The role of the poet in pre-Islamic Arabia

Except for a few proverbs, legends, and some magical and medicinal formulee, the bulk of the literary heritage from the pre-Islamic era was in the form of poetry. [19] Prose, which lacks the elaborate rhythm and formal structure of poetry, did not lend itself easily to memorization. Furthermore, in the absence of a developed system of writing, prose was much less easily preserved. Prose works from the pre-Islamic period were mainly genealogies (ansab) and legends dealing with inter-tribal wars (ayyam al-'arab). [20] Poetry therefore represents the main form of artistic expression during the pre-Islamic era.

The significance of poetry in pre-Islamic Arabia was underscored by the annual fairs, the most famous of which was the Suq Ukaz, in which poets competed for fame and recognition through recitations of poetry. The recitations constituted the main form of entertainment at the fairs. which were cultural as well as trading events.

The pre-Islamic poet, enjoying his enviable talent for composing poetry, played multiple roles. He was an artist, an entertainer, a journalist, and the spokesman for his tribe. Furthermore, he was the historian who kept alive the history and past glories of his tribe. His poetry provided a very effective means of propaganda and public relations. He was readily capable of influencing public opinion, and his poetry was sought by kings and tribal chiefs who generously rewarded him. In short, the poet enjoyed a very prominent status in pre-Islamic Arabia. [21]

The inimitability of the Qur'an

The inimitability of the Qur'an is not limited to its content. In fact, the Holy Book of Islam is held by Muslim scholars to be inimitable not only in its content but also in its language. The Qur'an, it has been constantly maintained, embodies linguistic and literary beauty which exceeds anything of human origin. This is borne out by the fact that no-one has ever been able to compose anything remotely resembling it in its linguistic, literary, or conceptual elegance. [22] This point is repeatedly emphasized in the Holy Book itself. Thus the Qur'an says:

If the whole of mankind and the jinn were to gather together to produce the like of this Qur'an, they could not produce the like thereof, even if they backed each other up. (17:88)

The inimitable nature of the Qur'an was recognized by generation after generation of scholars. Al-Tabari (d. 923) dealt with this subject in his voluminous study of the Holy Book. [23] Al-Zamakhshari elaborated on this theme in his famous al-Kashshaf, [24] as did Baydawi in his Tafsir. [25] AlBaqillam, a prominent scholar, wrote a book which he devoted entirely to this subject and to which he gave the title I'jaz al-Qur'an (The Inimitability of the Qur'an). [26] Here he wrote:

The Qur'an is so wonderfully arranged and so marvellously composed, and so exalted is its literary excellence that it is beyond what any mere creature could attain. [27]

Al-Jawziyya, also a noted scholar, added that:

Whoever knows Arabic and is acquainted with lexicography, grammar, rhetoric, and Arabic poetry and prose recognizes ipso facto the supremacy of the Qur'an [28]

Ibn Khaldun also dealt with certain aspects of the style of the Qur'an:

The inimitability of the Qur'an consists in the fact that its language indicates all the requirements of the situation referred to, whether they are stated or understood. This represents the highest degree of speech. In addition, the Qur'an is perfect in the choice of words and excellence of arrangement. [29]

The inimitability as well as the linguistic significance of the Qur'an can be better understood within its pre-Islamic context and according to the role language played during that period. Furthermore, the linguistic significance of the Qur'an can also be better understood within that same context. The linguistic aspect of the Holy Book was brilliantly used by the Prophet in challenging and eventually prevailing upon his fellow Arabs who held in high esteem those who were eloquent and articulate. The eloquence of the Qur'an clearly impressed and overwhelmed them. This explains why the Qur'an has been referred to as 'Muhammad's miracle', or. as the 'miracle of Islam'. The use of the power of the Qur'an as a means of persuasion was admitted by the Prophet himself and was mentioned repeatedly in the Qur'an mostly in the form of a challenge to the disbelievers to produce something similar. On the need and justification for the Prophet to use a book such as the Qur'an, Ibn Qutayba wrote:

God offered the Qur'an as the Prophet's sign in the same way as He offered signs for all the other prophets. He sent the things most appropriate to the time in which they were sent. Thus Moses had the power to divide the sea with his hand and rod, and to let the rock burst forth with water in the desert, and all his other signs in a time of magic. And Jesus had the power to bring the dead back to life, to make birds out of clay, to cure those who had been blind from birth and the leprous, and all his other signs in a time of medicine. And Muhammad, may God bless him and grant him salvation, had the book and all his other signs in a time of eloquence. [30]

The impact of the Qur'an of the Arabic language

Structure and content

As has already been pointed out, scholars have gone to great lengths over the past thirteen centuries to describe and emphasize the inimitability of the verses of the Qur'an. However, the impact of the revelation of the Qur'an on the Arabic language, its structure and content, has certainly been the focus of fewer studies. Works on the inimitability of the Qur'an have mostly focused on the literary beauty of the Holy Book, its conceptual strength and precision. Another important aspect of the Qur'an, one not adequately addressed, lies in its linguistic impact on the form and content of the Arabic language.

The Holy Qur'an has undoubtedly helped reinforce and deepen the Arab people's awareness of the richness and beauty of their tongue. From a linguistic point of view, the revelation of the Qur'an was the most important event in the history of the Arabic language. It was an event with far-reaching and lasting consequence, for the Qur'an gave Arabic a form which it had hitherto lacked. In fact, it was due to the desire to preserve the Qur'an that efforts were made to develop and refine the Arabic alphabet. It was within the same context that Abu l-Aswad al-Du'ali developed the dot system in the first century of the Islamic era in his attempt to lay the basis for Arabic grammatical theory. [31] His efforts were among the first to establish a permanent form for the Arabic alphabet and hence the Arabic writing system. As deciphered from the earliest inscriptions, the Arabic alphabet was vague, unsystematic, and inefficient. The dot system as developed by al-Du'ah helped to clarify and establish distinctions which were otherwise unclear. In fact, it can be maintained that had it not been for the strong desire to preserve the Qur'an, its form, grammar, pronunciation, and accuracy, the Arabic alphabet and writing system might not have developed as quickly as they did.

The Arabic alphabet and writing system were only one aspect of the Qur'an's impact on the language; it also gave Arabic a rigidity of form and a precision of presentation which were novel to the language, as well as a host of new locutions, complex concepts, meanings, and arguments. Furthermore, the Qur'an enriched the lexicon of the language by bringing new words and expressions into use, and by introducing loan-words from foreign languages. It also presented a firm set of linguistic standards and directions which were instrumental in the subsequent documentation of Arabic grammar.

The Qur'an likewise helped to expand the scope of Arabic as it was known in the early years of the seventh century. Islam and the Qur'an helped to open new horizons and fields of study which included such disciplines as philology, Islamic law (the sharia), and Islamic philosophy. The Qur'an also introduced a host of new themes and linguistic forms not only to the Arabic language but to the Arab mind as well. Taha Husayn dealt with this particular aspect of the verses of the Qur'an when he wrote:

In its external form the Qur'an is neither poetry nor prose. It is not poetry because it does not observe the metre and rhyme of poetry, and it is not prose because it is not composed in the same manner in which prose was customarily composed. [32]

The Qur'an consists of verses which vary in length depending on their theme and the occasion for which they were revealed. What is most interesting about Qur'anic verses is the superb selection of words, a selection which helps to induce varying reading speeds, which render these verses most effective. On this particular point,

Taha Husayn wrote:

For example, those verses dealing with the dialogues that took place between the Prophet and the pagans as well as those dealing with legislation require the type of low reading speed appropriate to explanation and recapitulation. On the other hand, those verses in which the pagans are warned of the fate that awaits them require a higher speed appropriate to censuring and warning. [33]

The varying speeds which Taha Husayn mentions appear to be achieved with remarkable spontaneity, which is the result, in Taha Husayn's words, of 'a careful selection of words and expressions.' [34] He gives sura 26, al-Shu'ara', as an example of the type of verse requiring speedy reading, and sura 28, al-Qasas, as an example of that requiring slow reading.

Another aspect of the novelty of the Qur'an language has to do with its themes. These themes and topics represent a clear departure from those which had been hitherto familiar to the Arabs. As Taha Husayn explained:

It does not deal with any such things as ruins, camels, or long journeys in the desert; nor does it describe longing for the beloved, love, or eulogy, topics most familiar to pre-Islamic Arabs. But rather it talks to the Arabs about such things as the oneness of God, His limitless power, His knowledge, which is unattainable, His will, which is unstoppable, and His creation of heaven and earth. [35]

This passage underscores yet another innovative aspect of the Qur'an, namely the presentation of novel themes through an abundance of examples all aimed at illustration and persuasion. The use of illustration is one of the most effective stylistic techniques of the Qur'an. One can hardly read a verse without experiencing the impact of this technique.

The art of narrative style represents another innovative aspect of the Qur'an. It relates in astounding detail the stories of Noah Abraham, Joseph, Moses, and Jesus, among others. It presents the dialogues that took place in such stories and the claims and counter-claims made by each of the opposing parties. Story-telling may not have been totally novel in pre-Islamic Arabia given the significant quantity of parables, epics, and myths that were inherited from that period. What was novel, however, was the type of integrated, elaborate story involving such essential items as theme, plot, well-developed characters, and denouement which are to be found in the Qur'an, which refers itself to the benefit in telling such stories:

We do relate unto thee the most beautiful stories, in that We reveal unto thee this [portion of the] Qur'an. Before this thou too were among those who knew it not. (1: 3)

Lexical borrowing

Lexical borrowing is another area in which the Qur'an established precedent. The Holy Book draws freely on words of non-Arabic origin, including Persian, Sanskrit, and Syriac. The importance of the Qur'an in this respect can be better understood against a deep-seated theme which can be discerned in the writings of scholars of preand early Islam, namely, that the Arabian Peninsula was, during the pre-Islamic era, more or less isolated from the rest of the world, and that the Arabic language, and consequently the Qur'an, was the unique product of the Arabian desert. Inherent in this theme is a belief in the 'purity' of the Arabic tongue and hence the scholars' reluctance to agree with the fact that in its attempt to illustrate the breadth of human religious experience the Qur'an drew on the lexicons of other languages and religions. [36] The verse: Thus have We sent down this Arabic Qur'an is often cited in support of this view. [37] It is obvious from the literature that the majority of the earlier scholars, for example, al-Shafi'i, Ibn Jarir, Abu ' Ubayda, al-Qadi Abu Bakr, and Ibn Faris, rejected the theory that some of the words of the Qur'an were not of Arabic origin. [38] The question of lexical borrowing and the existence of foreign words in the Qur'an was viewed differently by different scholars. Thus the earlier scholars maintained that the existence of foreign words implied and inadequacy of the language. Al-Suyuti quoted Ibn Aws as saying:

If the Qur'an had contained anything other than Arabic, then it would be thought that Arabic was incapable of expressing those things in its own words. [39]

Later scholars, however, viewed lexical borrowing differently. Thus, al-Suyuti explained that the adoption of some non-Arabic words in the Qur'an took place because such words denoted objects or ideas for which no Arabic words were readily available. [40] Examples include the Persian words 'istibraq' (a thick, silky brocade), 'ibriq' (a water jug); the Nabatean word 'akwab' (goblets); the Aramaic word 'asfar' (a large book); the Hebrew borrowing 'rahman' (merciful); and the Syriac words 'zayt' (olive oil) and 'zaytun' (the olive tree). The Qur'an has several hundred such foreign borrowings. Earlier generations of Muslim scholars maintained that such words were either ancient Arabic words that had gone out of use until the revelation of the Qur'an, or that such words were ancient borrowings introduced into Arabic long before the Revelation which had since then acquired an Arabic pattern. [41]

Whether we agree with the view that foreign words in the Qur'an are direct borrowings from other languages or with the view that the majority of these words were ancient borrowings which occurred in pre-Islamic poetry and which had been in use long before the revelation of the Qur'an, it is a fact that the Qur'an contains words that are not of Arabic origin. Such words come from a host of languages including Ethiopic, Persian, Greek, Sanskrit, Syriac, Hebrew, Nabatean, Coptic, Turkish, and Berber. [42] By adopting words of non-Arabic origin, the Qur'an may have helped to legitimize a very important linguistic process, that of lexical borrowing. The importance of this practice derives particularly from the fact that the use of foreign words was viewed unfavourably by a large number of Arab scholars at that time. [43] The term 'ajami (Persian, foreign) was used strictly in reference to non-Arabic words to set them aside from native Arabic words. During the documentation of the grammar in the first three centuries of the Islamic calendar, the same term was used to refer to less-than-native pronunciations of Arabic. In their attempt to document the grammar, the early scholars considered the speech of the bedouins in the heart of the desert to be the most reliable and purest, apparently due to their belief that the bedouins seldom left the desert or mixed with speakers of other languages. [44] Likewise, the early grammarians did not look favourably upon the adoption of foreign terms into Arabic, apparently in the belief that borrowing would indicate certain gaps or deficiencies in the language.

Since it contained words of non-Arabic origin, the Qur'an established a precedent for lexical borrowing as a tool whereby languages may enrich themselves. This was clearly one of the most innovative aspects of the Qur'an. It is particularly important given the unfavourable climate that prevailed among the early Muslim scholars with respect to lexical borrowing.

Structure and style

The Qur'an has made remarkable contributions to the structure and style of the Arabic language. It combines within its covers the first documentation of the sentence patterns of Arabic, and it was instrumental in the documentation of Arabic grammar which began in the first Islamic century. From the time of Sibawayh (d. c. 793) up to the present day there is hardly a page in any manual of Arabic grammar which does not contain one or more verses from the Qur'an. Furthermore, the strong interest in Qur'anic studies brought with it an equally strong interest in Arabic linguistic studies.

The style of the Qur'an helped to develop and enrich the Arabic language. As the first book in the Arabic language, it introduced stylistic innovations which greatly influenced trends in subsequent generations. Foremost among such trends is the Qur'an's abundant use of figures of speech in place of simple words. The Qur'an makes extensive use of illustrations, imagery, and metaphor, thus adding beauty, life, and colour to plain words In fact, the ubiquity of figures of speech in the Qur'an has led Sayyid Qutb to conclude that 'the use of imagery and figures of speech is the Qur'an's preferred style.' [45] The preference for figures of speech over plain words appears to be a general trend that permeates the entire Book. Thus, the Qur'an affirms the impossibility of the disbelievers' entry into paradise:

Nor will they enter the Garden until a thick rope can pass through the eye of a needle. (7: 40)

Confirming that the disbelievers' actions will be in vain, the Qur'an conveys this notion in the following way:

The parable of those who reject their Lord is that their works are as ashes on which the wind blows furiously as on a tempestuous day. (14: 18)

Another idea, that of those who do charitable acts yet spoil what they have done by gloating and reminding others of such acts is conveyed thus:

they are in a parable like a hard, barren rock on which is a little soil: on it falls heavy rain which leaves it just a bare stone. (2: 265)

The opposite case, namely that of those who spend for God's sake rather than in order to boast, is also expressed through imagery:

as a garden, high and fertile; heavy rain falls on it but makes it yield a double increase of harvest. (2: 265)

Earlier in the same sura, the same idea is conveyed through a different figure of speech:

The parable of those who spend their money in the way of God is that of a grain of corn: it groweth seven ears and each ear hath a hundred grains. (2: 261)

Criticizing those who worship gods other than Allah, the Qur'an likens their actions to that of a spider building a web:

The parable of those who take protectors other than God is that of the spider building for itself a house; but, truly, the flimsiest of houses is the spider's house. (29: 41)

Doomsday is one of the frequent themes of the Qur'an. The description of the horrors of that day is also presented through figures of speech:

for the convulsion of the Hour will be a terrible thing! The day ye shall see it, each mother giving suck shall forget her suckling-babe, and each pregnant female shall deliver her load. Thou shalt see mankind as in a drunken riot, yet not drunk. (22: 2)

Another very characteristic stylistic device of the Qur'an is that of anthropomorphization. Thus it describes dawn as breathing away the darkness (78: 10), the night as concealing the sun and veiling the day, the wind as fecundating, causing the rain to fall (15: 22). The sea is likened to ink which, if used, will not suffice to write the words of God:

Say: If the ocean were ink wherewith to write out the words of my Lord, sooner would the ocean be exhausted, even if we added another ocean like it. (18: 109)

Slandering is likened to eating another persons's flesh:

Nor speak ill of each other behind their backs. Would any of you like to eat the flesh of his dead brother. (49: 12)

The rhythmic patterns of speech found in Qur'anic recitations is yet another remarkable aspect of the language of the Qur'an. These patterns are a reflection of the special array of words and arrangement of phrases found in the Book. In the view of many scholars such verses combine the characteristics of both poetry and prose. [46] Unlike some poetry, the verses of the Qur'an do not have one single rhyme, thus there is more room for flexibility and freedom of expression. The Qur'an does, however, reflect certain aspects of poetry, especially with respect to its use of words with identical numbers of syllables. This 'music' is more noticeable in short verses than it is in long ones. [47] Sayyid Qutb cites sura 53

(al-Najm) as an excellent example of prose rhythm produced by words similar in length and all ending in the same sound, in this case the long a [48] There is another type of internal rhythm which is inherent in the structure of the single sentence. This is seen when the length of words varies within the same sura. A good example of this is sura 19 (Maryam), which begins with short words and phrases, then changes to longer ones. Furthermore, the rhythms of the various segments are enhanced by the use of two main rhymes throughout the entire sura. These rhymes end either in nun or mim preceded by either ya' or wa'w.

The narrative aspect of Qur'an style remains one of the most creative and innovative of the Holy Book, one which has profoundly influenced and enriched the Arabic language. Whatever narrative style the language had in pre-Islamic times were relatively crude and primitive. Even though the narrative parts of the Qur'an were clearly put to the service of the main theme of the Book, i.e., religion, the narrative was so highly developed and integrated that it became a work of art in itself. The Qur'an is remarkably innovative with respect to its method of presentation, which involves four different techniques. One common technique is that if beginning a story with a short summery, followed by the details from beginning to end, as in sura 18 (al-Kahf). The second technique is that of beginning a story by presenting the conclusion first, then the lesson to be derived from it, and then the story from beginning to end, as in the story of Moses in sura 28 (al-Qasas). The third technique presents the story directly without introduction, as in that of Mary following the birth of Jesus in sura 19 (Maryam), and the story of King Solomon and the ants in sura 27 (al-Naml). The fourth, and perhaps most innovative, technique is that of presenting the story through dramatization. This technique gives only a brief introduction signalling the beginning of the scene, followed by a dramatization of the story with a dialogue among the various characters, as in the story of Abraham and Ismail in sura 2.

An important element in the structure of Qur'anic narrative is the varied use of the element of surprise. In some cases the anticlimax is kept from the main players and spectators, and is unfolded for both simultaneously towards the end, as in sura 18 in the story of Moses and the scholar. Another use of the element of surprise reveals the anticlimax to the audience but conceals it from the characters, who act in total ignorance. The Qur'an commonly uses this technique in situations where satire is intended (satire which is directed at the actors and their behaviour) as in the story in sura 68 (al-Qalam). A third technique reveals part of the anticlimax to the audience while keeping part of it concealed from both the audience and the characters, as in the story in sura 27 (al-Naml).

The structure of Qur'anic narrative displays the well-developed elements of an integrated literary work. One of the elements indispensable to dramatized narrative is change of scenery, which the Qur'an utilizes fully. In the story of Joseph in sura 12, the reader is presented with a succession of scenes, each of which leads to the next, picking up the main thread of the narrative. Joseph's story comprises some twenty-eight scenes, each of which leads to the next in a manner which maintains the organic unity of the entire narrative. All such scenes are presented through dialogues replete with details and ideas. The result of such a well-knit passage is that the reader finds himself drawn to the narrative, moving anxiously from one scene to another. This effect is achieved through a coherent series of events which sustain his curiosity and interest. In one scene, for example, we find one of Joseph's brothers entering the king's court in Egypt where Joseph is the keeper of the store-house. In this scene, Joseph stipulates to his brothers that they should bring their younger brother to the king's court in order to receive provisions. The next scene presents the brothers deliberating among themselves, which is followed by a scene in which they have returned to face their father, Jacob. The following scene takes the brothers back to Egypt to confront Joseph. The presentation of the narrative in dramatic form involving a succession of scenes brings home effortlessly the main theme and the lessons to be derived from the whole narrative. The use of dialogue makes the scenes more vivid and closer to life. This is an art in which the Qur'an excels, and an art in which it is remarkably innovative. It is clearly a form of literary composition which the Qur'an, the first book in Arabic, introduced to the language.

The portrayal of personalities is a very significant element of the narrative; here, again, the Qur'an sets a precedent. The depiction of personalities in the various narratives manages to convey to the reader the precise dimensions and traits of such figures. This is done through the words and actions of the personalities portrayed. In the story of Moses, for example, the reader is readily able to discern, through Moses' actions, the type of aggressive yet emotionally sensitive person he was meant to portray. Conversely, in the story of Abraham, the Qur'anic verses carefully depict a calm, peaceful, and patient personality. This careful and accurate delineation of personality is effected largely through dialogue which skillfully brings out the traits of such personalities. The dialogue, in turn, is rendered even more effective by a very careful choice of words.

Islam, the Qur'an, and the internationalization of the Arabic language

The revelation of the Quran in Arabic in the early part of the seventh century AD helped the language to acquire and international status which it has continued to enjoy until the present day. It has been argued that Arabic has not simply remained ancilliary to Islam but that it has been significant as a 'means of cultural and national revival in the Arabic-speaking countries.' [49] It is true that Arabic has played an important role in the life and history of the Arab people, but without the bond it has with Islam it would not have been likely to have acquired the type of international status it has acquired through Islam. It was under the banner of religion that Arabic spread beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula. The early Muslims who emerged from the north-western part of the Arabian Peninsula brought with them not only the Islamic religion but Arabic as well. This phenomenon was so remarkable that, within a few centuries after the revelation of the Qur'an, Arabic became the common language of government, correspondence, business, and literary expression.

The speed and facility with which Arabic was first accepted and then eventually absorbed in the new countries was remarkable, and it was largely due to its association with Islam. Converts to the new religion looked with great interest towards the original language of their Holy Book. [50] They were clearly fascinated by the new religion and its language. The desire on the part of the new converts to identify with the resourceful pioneers emerging from the Arabian Peninsula was yet another factor in their adoption of the language.

Arabic was able to replace such languages as Greek and Syriac in Syria and the Fertile Crescent, Coptic, Greek, and Latin in Egypt, and Pahlavi in Persia. Syriac, a dialect of the ancient Aramaic language, had a flourishing literature until it gave way to Arabic in the seventh century AD, and was subsequently limited to being a vehicle for translating Greek literature and philosophy into Arabic. In Egypt, the languages used until the early seventh century were Coptic and Greek; both languages, however, gave way to Arabic, which became the common language of the country, with Coptic as the language of the local Christian Church. By the end of the ninth century, Arabic was already being used in churches alongside Coptic. [51] In Persia, Pahlavi, the language of the Sassanian dynasty (224 640 AD), used the Arabic alphabet and contained a large number of Arabic loan-words. Following the Arab conquest in 640, Pahlavi gave way to New Persian, which adopted the Arabic script and which was greatly influenced by Arabic. It is estimated that one third of the vocabulary of modern Persian (Farsi), is of Arabic origin. [52] Persian scholars engaged in the field of Islamic studies wrote mostly in Arabic. Among these were such prominent figures as Ibn Sina (980 1037), al Ghazzali (1058-1111), and Abu Bakr al-Razi of the twelfth century AD who wrote more than thirty books in Arabic. Even though Farsi began to develop its own identity and become gradually independent from Arabic around the tenth century AD, [53] the language is still written in the Arabic script. [54]

Similarly, the Arabic script was adopted for the Turkic languages following the conversion to Islam of speakers of these languages, which include, in the Southern Division, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkoman, and Chuvash, and, in the Eastern Division, Kinghiz, Kazakh, and Tatar. The Turkic languages continued to use the Arabic script until the early part of this century. The Turkish language, the most important of the Turkic languages, was doubly influenced by Arabic; first, through conversion to Islam, the adoption of the Arabic script, and the adoption of a large number of Arabic loan-words, and secondly through the medium of Farsi. As in the case of the latter, Arabic was the language of composition for many Turkish scholars, notably in the fields of religious and philological studies. [55]

In the Indian subcontinent, the introduction of Arabic was similarly largely due to the adoption of the Islamic faith. It was the language of government during the reign of the sultan Jalal al-Din (963-1014 AH). There is evidence, however, that Arabic reached India prior to the tenth Islamic century through Farsi, which was the language of the court in India prior to the advent of Islam. Urdu, a written variety of Hindustani with a substantial quantity of Arabic words, is the language used by Muslims; it employs the Arabic alphabet. A great majority of the Urdu scholars of the twelfth Islamic century used the medium of Arabic for their writings. Prominent among them were Wali Allah al-Dihlawi, Shibli al-Na'mani, and Karamat Husayn. [56] Arabic gained more and more ground with the increasing Muslim influence in India. Urdu, which has a vocabulary of which at least thirty per cent is of Arabic origin, continues to the present to be the foremost among the dialects spoken among the Muslims of India and Pakistan. The impact of Arabic extended to other Indic languages such as Hindi and Sindhi, the latter using the Arabic alphabet.

In south-east Asia, the arrival of Islam in the fourteenth century AD brought with it the Arabic language, whose alphabet was subsequently adopted by the Malayo-Polynesian languages. These languages are spoken by the inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula, Madagascar, Taiwan, Indonesia, New Guinea, the Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian islands, the Phillipines, and New Zealand. These languages employ writing systems based on the Roman, Hindic, and Arabic alphabets. [57]

The impact of Islam and the Arabic language was not confined to these parts of Arabia, Africa, and Asia. Indeed, the spread of Islam into the European continent led to the subsequent introduction of Arabic. Less than a century later, the impact of Arabic began to be felt on such languages as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, English, and German. The impact was most noticeable in Spain and Portugal, where Arabic existed alongside the native languages and was used in church liturgy and in business transactions. It was generally through Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian that Arabic influenced other European languages, including the Scandanavian languages. The number of Arabic loan-words in Spanish is in the thousands. Many names of cities, rivers, villages, and provinces in Spain have retained their Arabic forms, as in place-names which begin with the words bani, wadi, and al('son', 'valley', and 'the', respectively), as in Bani al-Madina, Wadi al-Kabir, and al-Qasr. [58] Among the Arabic loan-words in European languages there is a host of scientific terminology. The existence of scientific words of Arabic origin in European languages is attributed to the pioneering efforts of Muslim scholars in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, and medicine. In their works, Muslim scholars had to coin an entirely new terminology to introduce their innovations, which included such novel concepts as algebra, the algorithm, alkali, alchemy, and alcohol. In addition to scientific terms, European languages contain many everyday words of Arabic origin, e.g., coffee, sugar, saffron, admiral, arsenal. Arabic numerals are another case in point.

Conclusion

The Arabic language has without doubt served as a very effective medium for the communication of the message of Islam, and as the Prophet's strongest argument against the challenges of his articulate and eloquent contemporaries. It has also served as a means for preserving the cultural and religious heritage of Arabic-speaking and Muslim peoples. In this sense, the language has been extremely useful to the religion. However, in its role as the language of the Qur'an, Arabic has benefited enormously. There is a clear legitimacy to the claim that Islam and the Qur'an have helped to preserve Arabic from decay and deterioration, for it was mainly due to the need to preserve the accuracy and pronunciation of the verses of the Qur'an that efforts were instigated towards refining the Arabic alphabet. Subsequently, the Qur'an was instrumental in the codification of Arabic grammar in the second the third Islamic centuries. Furthermore, the need for Muslims, whether native or non-native speakers of Arabic, to memorize and recite verses from the Qur'an in their daily worship has helped to keep the Arabic language alive. It was due to its association with Islam and the Qur'an that Arabic gained a good deal of prestige as the language of a young faith, a faith that was gaining more and more followers with each new day. The interest in the new faith this brought with it interest in the language of that faith. It was under the banner of Islam that Arabic spread beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula to far-off areas in Europe, south-east Asia, and Africa.

From literary, structural, and stylistic points of view, the Qur'an added immeasurably to the beauty of the language, introducing new styles, forms of expression, figures of speech, and structures. The Qur'an also enriched and expanded the vocabulary of the Arabic language by employing hundreds of words of foreign origin, thus demonstrating the legitimacy of lexical borrowing as a linguistic device. The Qur'an similarly presented Arab scholars with a higher criterion of literary excellence and set new and more rigid standards for literary composition for subsequent generations of Arab scholars. The model that the Qur'an provided, while remaining inimitable, has sharpened the literary skill and kindled the talent of generations of scholars in their attempts to emulate the style and literary excellence of the Qur'an, the first book in the Arabic language. Interest in the Qur'an, its language, and its exegesis gave rise to a number of related disciplines, which include philological, religious, and linguistic studies. There is no doubt that the Arabic language was extremely useful as a medium for the revelation of the Holy Qur'an and for communicating God's final message to the pre-Islamic Arabs of the seventh century. It is, however, the conclusion of this paper that the Arabic language underwent drastic changes in its structure, content, and status due to its association with Islam and the Qur'an, changes that the language would not have undergone had it not been for the new role it acquired in its bond with Islam and the Qur'an.

see the footnotes at http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/Arabic.htm

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The Concept Of Martyrdom In Islam

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 16, 2008

A. Ezzati, Tehran University, Al-Serat, Vol XII (1986)

ISLAM as an all inclusive systematic religion is an interrelated set of ideals and realities covering the entire area of human notion and action, beliefs and practices, thought, word, and deed. Islamic principles and concepts cannot be fully and properly appreciated unless they are analysed and realized within the framework of Islam as a whole. [1]

The concept of martyrdom (shahada) in Islam can only be understood in the light of the Islamic concept of Holy Struggle (jihad) and the concept of jihad may only be appreciated if the concept of the doctrine of enjoining right and discovering wrong (al-amr bi'l-maruf) is properly appreciated, and good and bad, [2] right and wrong, can only be understood if the independent divine source of righteousness, truth, and goodness (tawhid), and how the Message of the divine source of righteousness and truth has been honestly and properly conveyed to humanity through prophethood, are understood. Finally the divine message may not be fully appreciated unless the embodiment of this divine message, or the Model of Guidance, and the Supreme Paradigm (imama or uswa) is properly recognized.

We can thus see how the concept of martyrdom in Islam is linked with the entire religion of Islam. This whole process can be somehow understood if the term 'Islam' is appreciated. This is because being a derivate of the Arabic root salama, which means 'surrender' and 'peace', Islam is a wholesome and peaceful submission to the will of Allah. [3] This means being prepared to die (martyrdom) in the course of this submission. Thus the concept of martyrdom, like all other Islamic concepts, can be fully and wholly appreciated only in the light of the Islamic doctrine of tawhid, or the absolute unity of Allah and full submission to His will and command. It cannot be fully appreciated in isolation.

In this sense, the concept of shahada is no exception. All Islamic concepts are interrelated, and should be appreciated within the framework of the doctrine of tawhid.[4]

The concept of shahada in Islam has been misunderstood by both Muslims and non-Muslims. As stated above, shahada is closely associated with the concept of jihad. Most non-Muslim scholars, intentionally or unintentionally, have defined jihad as only the Holy War, and thus have understood neither jihad nor shahada.[5] The Muslims, mostly taking into consideration the martyrs of the early days of Islamic history, define martyrdom in terms of the fatalistic death of those dear to Allah, and do not see the close link between continuous struggle in the cause of Allah ( jihad) and martyrdom.[6]

Martyrdom is not the monopoly of Islam (though it is the monopoly of spiritual, religious, and divine systems, and cannot be claimed by followers of materialistic schools). Islam introduces its own concept of martyrdom. An Islamic concept should be explained within the framework of Islam, and not, by Muslims or by non-Muslims, in the light of non-Islamic concepts such as guilt and suffering. Muslims are not allowed to explain Islamic principles without taking due consideration of the entire conceptual system of Islam. Shahada thus cannot be explained purely in terms of intercession and mediation. That is to say, those early martyrs of Islam volunteered for death to be able to intercede and mediate for sinners on the Day of Judgement.

The Islamic concept of intercession and mediation (shafa'a) should be appreciated within the framework of the principle of causality, and not solely as spiritual mediation.[7] Islam rejects the Christian concept of mediation without the personal responsibility for the salvation of oneself.

The concepts of martyrdom and Holy Struggle in the cause of Allah are interrelated. Both words have been frequently used in the Holy Qur'an.[8] In fact, there is no martyrdom without struggle in the cause of Allah and for the cause of the truth. Both words have literal meanings different from their terminological meanings, although these terminological meanings were originally based on the literal meanings.[9] They developed their terminological meanings later on, though the term shahada was used in the Qur'an for those who were martyred too.[10] The Islamic concepts of both shahada and jihad have been misunderstood, particularly by non-Muslims, mainly by Orientalists.

The word shahada is derived from the Arabic verbal root shahada, which means to 'see', to 'witness', to 'testify', to 'become a model and paradigm'. Shahada therefore literally means to 'see', to 'witness', and to 'become a model'. A shahid is the person who sees and witnesses,[11] and he is therefore the witness, as if the martyr witnesses and sees the truth physically and thus stands by it firmly, so much so that not only does he testify it verbally, but he is prepared to struggle and fight and give up his life for the truth, and thus to become a martyr. In this way, and by his struggle and sacrifice for the sake of the truth, he become a model, a paradigm, and an example for others, worthy of being copied, and worthy of being followed.[12]

In this process, the keyword is 'truth' (haqq), its recognition and declaration, the struggle and fight for it, and the preparedness to die for its sake and thus set the model for the seekers of truth. The goal, motive, and the whole aim is the establishment of the truth. Jihad is the means for establishing the truth, and may lead to martyrdom, but does not necessarily lead to being killed for it in the battlefield, although it necessarily involves the continuous Holy Struggle, and death in the cause of the struggle.

We may therefore conclude that there is neither jihad nor martyrdom outside the realm of truth, that martyrdom applies only when it is preceded by jihad, that jihad is an inclusive struggle for the cause of the truth, that a mujahid dies the death of a martyr even though he does not fall on the battlefield. He dies as a martyr even though he is not killed, on the condition that he stays loyal to the divine truth and stands ready to fight for the truth and to defend it at all costs, even at the cost of his own life. He is a mujahid while he lives, and a martyr if he dies or is killed for it.

We have explained that a martyr establishes himself as a paradigm and a model. Both shahid (martyr) and shahid (model) are derived from the same Arabic root. In this sense, the concept of shahada is closely related to the concept of prophethood in Islam. Both the martyrs and the prophets are regarded as paradigms (2:143).

In Islam man needs guidance to the truth. The true guidance is from the whole truth, God, the Source of Truth and Guidance (50:6, 71, 88, 92:12). But since it is man who is to be guided, the guide should naturally be a man. Islam is the message from the source of truth, given to the Messenger as the guideline for leading mankind to the truth. Guiding humanity requires leading humanity. The true faith is united with righteous living in Islam, and there is unity of belief and practice in Islam. A comprehensive guidance therefore involves leading in thought, words, and behaviour. The guide should therefore practise what he preaches,[13] and should himself be the supreme incarnation and the perfect embodiment of the message he spreads. He should be a paradigm, a model, and a model-maker.'[14] Muhammad was thus the Messenger who brought the comprehensive universal Message of Allah, and he was the incarnation of the divine message,[15] and the living example of his mission, the model (shahid), the paradigm (uswa). The key word in the concept of prophethood in Islam is thus human guidance. This involves the recognition of what humanity should be guided to, what guidance is, how it should be done, and the realization of the guidance by being the true model of the actual guidance. This is why Muhammad was himself the first Muslim and the best model of Islam. And thus his practice is recognized as the guideline and standard pattern (sunna) for the Muslim community, the members of which are supposed to become models (shuhada) for the entire human community.[16] The prophets, including Muhammad, were thus models and model-makers, and their disciples and companions were models. Thus those who carry on the struggle in the cause of the truth are mujahids and shahids at the same time.

The position of the prophets as the paradigms and model-makers in Islam gives the Islamic concept of prophethood a unique characteristic. Their main responsibility is thus leading and guiding humanity to the truth by being the true incarnation of God.[17] They do not intercede and mediate between the source of the truth and humanity spiritually, in the sense that they come to be crucified to pay for the sins committed by humanity through Adam. In Islam, everybody is responsible for his or her own actions.[18] Nothing and nobody can intercede between the sinner and God. The concept of intercession is Islam should be appreciated within the framework of the principle of causality. That is to say that the prophets, by guiding and leading the people to the truth, cause their salvation (sa'ada). Salvation must be earned and deserved, and the prophets and the Messengers of Allah provide us with the opportunity to earn and deserve salvation,[19] that is to say, it is not the crucifixion and the cross that causes salvation, but it is the realization of the truth that causes it. Man is thus, originally sinless, good, and peaceful, and the role of the prophets is a positive one that of guidance and of being a paradigm, and not a negative one. Martyrs are the super-models of the divine message, too, and in this way they share a special responsibility and honour with the prophets.

Because the responsibility of the prophets is partly to provide the living example of the divine message, their message should be practical so that the rest of humanity, like them, is able to copy and follow them and practise the Message too. What Jesus did, according to Christian doctrine, was a unique action by a unique being (the crucifixion of the Son of God), not possible and necessary for humanity to copy. But what Muhammad did was to convey the practical guidelines of righteousness, and he himself lived within those guidelines to prove their practicability for the rest of humanity. This is why the prophets are called shahids (paradigms and witnesses) in the Qur'an,[20] a term used for martyrs later on in the early days of Islamic history.[21] Muhammad, therefore, like other Messengers, is the incarnation of Islam, full surrender to God, the universal religion of all of creation, including man.[22] He was the model of what he taught, and a paradigm for humanity. A model attracts and leads people to the truth. He does not force them. This is in full harmony with the concept of man in Islam. Islam rejects the incarnation in man of the essence of the actual divinity, but fully encourages the incarnation of God's guidance, will, and command, to become the living example of God's full code of thought and life (din, religion) for man. The prophets are the living examples of the divine message, and by being so make others the examples. Martyrs are also full examples of the divine message, and thus the embodiment of the divine will. There are a few Islamic traditions which introduce the blood of the martyrs as the blood of God (thar Allah).

Shi'ism being one of the fundamental and original sects of Islam, and staying loyal to all authentic Islamic doctrines, lays great emphasis on the doctrine of the leadership (Imamate) of the Muslim leadership. I believe it is not inappropriate to suggest that all of Shi'ism revolves around one major principle, that of the leadership of the Islamic community (umma).

The keyword in Shi'ism is thus Imamate, which means leading and guiding those in need of guidance. If the community is to be led and guided, the leaders themselves should be the leading examples of the faith in what they try to lead the community to believe in, and models of the code of thought and practice they try to lead others to practice. The concept of leadership involves three elements: (i) those who lead (imam), (ii) those who are to be led (shia, mamum), and (iii) the actual leadership, guidance, and code of leadership. The community cannot be lead unless those who lead believe in what they practice and in what they preach others to practice. In short, imams should themselves be the living examples and models for those they try to lead.

If prophethood and messengership involve two major responsibilities, namely, introducing and spreading the divine message, and setting the model and being the living example of the divine message, the Imamate involves only the latter responsibility. This is why every Messenger is also an Imam, but an Imam is not necessarily a Messenger. In fact, the office of the Imamate is the responsibility for providing the model for the office of messengership, and this is how he leads. We can therefore understand that Shi'ism (following the leader) based on the doctrine of the Imamate (leadership) is more directly involved with the idea of setting the model, providing the example, and producing the paradigm. The entire history of Shi'ism, and the lives of the Shi'i Imams should be appreciated in this context and within the concept of the Imamate, which is the leading of humanity to salvation by guiding them to the full implementation of Allah's code for the salvation of humanity, by being the supreme example in word and deed of that divine code. That is to say that they live a life of continuous struggle in the cause of Allah and of truth, and that is why they are all regarded as martyrs, whether they die on the battlefield or in bed.

The event of Karbala', the martyrdom of the Imam Husayn on 'Ashura', and the whole struggle he undertook, plays a very crucial role in the history of Shi'ism. Yet this unique historical event is seen by the Shi'a as a model event to inspire the Muslims. This is explained in the well known narration frequently quoted 'Every day is 'Ashura', and every place is Karbala'. This is partly why it has kept its dynamic, resilient, and revolutionary spirit, and features throughout history, and this is how Shi'ism truly reflects this spirit.

Source: http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/Concept-Ezzati.htm

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Art Awaiting the Saviour

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 16, 2008

by: Dr.Ali Shariati
Translated by Ms. Homa Fardjadi

In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful, Friends, Ladies and Gentlemen:

YOU MIGHT feel that art, whatever form it may take, is a complex subject which requires proper specialization to speak about it and that one who attempts to talk about it must necessarily be an artist himself. You and I both agree that I cannot consider myself to be one. But on the other hand, my words here on art are not of the kind which are common these days. They differ from other talks given on this subject or themes in which one has to deal with the particular area of his specialization.

There are some sciences which are oppressed in our society. They are oppressed in the sense that they have no particular owner. The reason they have no owner is because they do not have a set of clearly definable rules and limitations. At any rate, my words on art here are not of this kind. I am not speaking here as a specialist on the subject of art, but rather as one who is interested in knowing about art.

My words will represent my own point of view. They have, at one and the same time, an aspect of specialization as well as an aspect that is quite general and related to humanity. In this sense, it is contrary to some of the sciences which become so specialized that they become exclusive and others are not allowed to express an opinion about them. This is true of physics, chemistry and mathe- matics.

But art addresses itself to all people while at the same time it requires a skill and a technique. And yet, it is more than that. To a certain extent, the knowledge of it requires education and involves training. But I am only speaking here as one who has been addressed by the art of my own time. It is from this point of view that I will criticize and express my views as to why art is as it is.

To begin with, we are considering the problem of art because we are an eastern people. A part of our people relate to some of the great civilizations of mankind. Slogans accepted by all the Asian and African nations today are, 'We must stand on our own two feet,' 'We must nourish ourselves from our own original, cultural resources. We must return to ourselves. We must pull ourselves out of our state of stupefaction of having passively sunk into western cultural values and models. This is only the starting point.

Some think that it is enough to realize the fact that we should return to ourselves and our own character. No, this is only our point of departure and our slogan. We must immediately answer the question, 'What is the self?' What is it that we are referring to when seeking to return to our culture?

Unfortunately, in a society whose fate is fixed, stagnant and immobile, the fate of meanings is just as miserable. When a problem or an idea is proposed, it often meets resistance without having been understood, heard, known or recognized properly. It is put down not only by reason, knowledge or words, but through other ethical ways and means, as well.

If a person tries to turn his back on the question, he or she will sink even further in. If one is hard-headed and stands and resists at any price, then one becomes the idol of fashion. When fashionable, it then becomes vulgar to the degree that the person will regret it completely.

The idea of 'returning to self' has now become such that the people who first suggested it, with great difficulties in some coun- tries, are now prepared to pay any price to acquit themselves of the blame. Returning to self has now become equivalent to the revival of superstitions, frozen traditions, fanaticism and a return to the uncivilized, indigenous traditions.

Returning to self means to return to one's own character. It means to breathe with the spirit, seeking the constructive, active and progressive aspects of culture which have, in the past, created societies, civilization and urbanization. It does not mean to return to problems which have, through time and according to needs, died, and are now extinct and dead matter. It never means to explore meanings, feelings, emotions, ideas and philosophies from the begin- ning of time and exhibit them in our modern museums.

We should rather return to ourselves as the reality and truth demands, to our national and ethnic character. We should not do so with an attitude of racism or because of being attached to blood or land, but only because of our relationship to humanity. To return to that character means to gain independence from the attacks of foreign values. Meanwhile, one of the most immediate and genuine responsibilities will be to fight against superstition, archaic values and all the elements which blind and weaken a nation and its insight and keep it from creativity, modernization, progress and continuous change. A return to self does not mean a return to the old, worn out ideas.

But the question remains, which culture is it that we should know? Which culture is it that we should revive in order to receive inspiration from its creative and constructive spirit? Return to self is all right, but what is this true self ? Answering this question presents an immediate problem. We should no longer pose the question, 'Should we or should we not return to self or to our own culture,' we should now, know ourselves. That is, we should start a scientific search. We should seek an up-to-date outlook in our choice of sources and resources, whether human, scientific or cultural and one of them would be the arts.

Contrary to the judgment reflected in the mind of our dormant generation, we are neither weak nor poor in our arts, deeds or manifestations. We should forget standing dumbfounded as primi- tives when confronted with the expressions of the world's progressive art. If we study art in all its dimensions, and not only through translations of the history of art or lives of the artists where the encyclopedias begin with Greece and end with France, but rather, as a reader, an independent historian, if we regard the whole world, its history and its diverse ways, we will see that we do have a profound base in the arts. I would also suggest that modern art, that is, the art characterizing the twentieth century, which contains the rays of the future, is an art which tries, in a new way, to approach the artistic spirit which was the fundamental basis of Oriental art. I will explain how.

Secondly, the concept of art is no longer a minor and secondary part of the life of the well-off and the aristocrats as it was in the past. On the contrary, it is the most serious and essential human problem to be considered in the modern world today, the world which has surpassed its limits of aristocratic palaces and the comfortable life-style of the rich. It has extended itself into the crowd and has spread among the masses. The new art is no longer controlled by the aristocracy, as was the case in the past, but it is the sympathetic intellectual, conscious and sensitive, who leads it. Art is no more a pleasant and diverting tranquilizer to keep our lives closed and comfortable. It leads the philosophies of today and runs ahead of our contemporary ideas. It is essential for us to know art, both because of the way it has extended itself in the human world and because of the serious and supreme responsibility it has acquired today. To what- ever history, culture or land we may belong, we are still living in this century.

Return to self, knowing oneself, on the one hand, is not to limit and confine oneself to one's own model, but rather, only they can know themselves who can know others at the same time. The proverb about language is relevant here which says: Only that person knows his language who necessarily knows a foreign language as well. one only knows his culture, religion, race, talents and history who essentially knows another's history, religion and language. This is why, while our goal and our struggle may be to find our lost and changed character, at the same time, knowing the West and the new waves of the contemporary world and civilization becomes necessary as well.

Everybody blames the poor West for his weaknesses, corruption and absurdities. Who is the foreigner we have learned to become like? What we see today is not the result of imitating the West. It is rather because of not imitating the West. It is caused by not knowing the West. If we had been conscious imitators of the West, we may no longer have been Eastern, but at least we would have been 'some- what Western' whereas presently we are nothing.

The points referred to here are suggestions I made in five lectures delivered in Paris in 1962. One of the lectures I had prepared was on the subject of 'the Spirit of the Iranian Nation.' Another was on the life of the Prophet, 'Mohammad, his Wives and his Names.' It was in response to a Catholic conference which had made the private life of the Prophet into a play. Another of the lectures was about 'Art Awaiting the Saviour.' This lecture was later translated in Tehran, but for some reason, half of it was left out and the other half rejected. Since then, I have made fundamental revisions in my views on art. My outlook now differs. Although the points and observations I made then are the same, there are some examples, appropriate in the context of the original conference, which I have now changed.

As the title of the subject suggests, I intend to show that art is a religion, a transcendent and sacred truth, a saviour of humanity. It has a responsibility which is great indeed and which rises above materiality. It is a responsibility which is totally human. But art has been turned away from this faith, the religion of art, not by an enemy, since an enemy never causes deviation, but rather, an enemy enlivens its enemy. What transforms a religion and thought, is a friend or an enemy which appears as a friend in society.

The form of all religions has been modified and made to rot from the inside. Look at Islam. When the Qoraish stood against it, it was a growing, radiant, exalted, powerful and proud society. But when the same enemy became Moslem and put on the cloak of a friend, the situation transformed into something else. It took a completely opposite turn. This is why we say that it was not wars and conflicts which caused Islam, Judaism or Christianity to weaken and shift from the true way. But as Jesus says, it was the Jewish priests who corrupted the Jewish faith. It was Papism that caused Christianity to diverge. In the case of Islam, we ourselves have led the faith astray.

Art was not weakened by Plato who opposed poetry and art. Neither was it weakened by those who see it as vain, nor by people with a conscious, clear mind, those who know the Truth of that religion and have recognized the shift from its original goal. The conscious are aware that religion is something else and has now turned into another thing. It has been corrupted by our great artists who have brought it down to today's level of vulgarity.

When a religion declines, as we have pointed out, it takes a direction opposite to its original one, it is metamorphosized, so to speak. There is a group of people who believe religion by itself is metamorphosized and thereby declines. There is another group of half-literate intellectuals who think that the metamorphosis or decline itself is that religion and oppose it on these grounds.

When we turn our attention towards those who are conscious and aware of the real spirit of religion, we are met by a revolutionary thought, manifest in all religions, which is the belief in the final salvationythat which will bring about revolutionary eradication of decay and oppression, that which will obliterate all deviation.

This promised salvation (namely messianism) is essentially a revolutionary thought that arises from the spirit and throws out all false habits, customs and delusions at one time, revealing the true and direct way. It leads art and religion back to its original path.

The state of art is such today that the worst of the duties and the most mischievous of the missions is left in the hands of this world. The role of art should be exactly the opposite of this. On the other hand, there has always been a misuse and inversion of supreme beauty and truth. As Jalal al-din Rumi says, 'If you see that there is a forged coin current in the market, know that there has been a golden one which was a means of exchange.' No one makes a simple forged coin but always a forged golden coin.

This very imitation directs us to the fact that man is deceived through religion, art and philosophy and this fact should indicate to us that the way to awareness and the construction of human beings is also through them. That which is relevant between myself and my friends becomes an excuse to be used by an enemy who has a different opinion than we do. Is it that when a truth is misused, we should wash our hands of it? Or, the reverse, fight against the misuse? The enemy is armed with this weapon. This is why we should keep the truth and defend it. If we let it go, the enemy will be victorious and we will be defeated.

Historically, the misuse of something was most often carried out in the name of religion and it is now done in the name of art. This is why we should come to know the real direction of art and once we know it, make it known to others. This is a most immediate problem because art has occupied all of our time in the 20th century. This is not correct to my way of thinking. Rather, it is one of the stages that art has to pass through in order to reach a superior one.

For a discussion on art, we should put beauty aside. There is nothing more important and at the same time suspicious in artistic, philosophical and scientific matters than the truth of beauty. Unlike the problem of metaphysics and religion, beauty cannot be denied, even though we usually deny it when we reach a dilemma. But, it is there, for all men are affected by it and everyone recognizes it. If there is any disagreement, it is on the different kinds of beauty in human life, be it in what I see or what I feel in my heart. On the other hand, we are bound to analyze it, and it does not lend itself easily to analysis.

As history shows, people have tried to scientifically and philosoph- ically analyze beauty and develop rules and limitations for it since the time of Aristotle. But all these efforts have been in vain and remain unrealized. In fact, each of the various ideas have certain followers but this shows that, in fact, the arguments have not as yet reached any particular stage.

We do not have time here for me to talk about the various concepts of beauty presented as an idea in the different schools of thought. But I will have to name them as examples where necessary in the course of our discussion.

The understanding of art and beauty is very much dependent upon comprehending the human being. In particular, the problem of art, more than anything else and more than ever depends upon the role of the human being and upon comprehending him. Efforts towards the development and evolution of culture have been strengthened, but they have remained incomplete because the human beings who must live in this civilization and within this cultural framework are not comprehended. Their needs are not known and the knowing of these needs depends upon knowing the human being. Art more than anything else is in need of comprehending the human being because art is usually considered to be either subjective, that is, completely human or else very objective. Those who believe that beauty consists of a truth which comes into being from the interac- tions of our spirit and an external object, think it is an objective approach, but because we think subjectively, we actually see all things half-subjectively and half-objectively. Thus we cannot say anything about art and beauty unless we first speak about the human being.

The true human being is in a state of becoming, whereas mankind has a specific and distinct existence which can be described from its five hundred thousand year history. The human being's 'becoming' is not the same thing as mankind's 'coming into being'. That is a reality with other kinds of peculiarities.

From the depths of the world of feeling to modern philosophies, multiple mystic, philosophic and even materialistic interpretations have been given. But it all means that to the extent to which a creature is part of nature, society, a tribe and comes into being through physiological and material laws and rules, he or she eventually becomes lonely and then the feelings of loneliness and the desire for freedom arise Based upon these feelings, anxiety and agitation follow and efforts towards once again joining that which, with effort, he or she left and thirsted for, becomes a perpetual ascending evolution which, through choice and effort, takes the shape of a will which compensates for what he or she feels is lacking in the existing world.

It is possible that all the ideas of a human being may not be right, but knowledge means struggling, thinking, making observations and adjusting one's views to reach something. It is not that we should say nothing until we reach 'the knowledge of certainty' and 'the truth of certainty', for it is impossible to reach it all at once unless it be through revelation. We should continue saying and thinking as we reach towards it. We had a teacher who would slap us whenever we made mistakes in reading the Qoran. Thus none of us ever learned to read the Qoran properly.

The paradise that I know or presume to know is subjective and related to the human being. In the story of creation, as I understand it, history is not denied. It is simply not natural history. Rather, paradise is a philosophical-symbolic expression which attempts to analyze contemporary man and the enigma that is called humanity. What does paradise mean ? It means paradise. We see there are still people in paradise. They have not been expelled from it yet. Their world is filled with blessing. The world is full of joy. Man feels rich, satisfied and fulfilled in life. The one who is happy with the thought that parliament may pass a law sometime in the future that would add 1110 to his salary, is in paradise. He has not yet come out of it. The one who has not eaten the forbidden fruit that God asked him not to eat, is comfortable. He is satisfied and happy.

But what is that forbidden fruit? The Old Testament and the Qoran both talk of perception and consciousness. I know some paradisiac people who find pleasure in this world, who find joy in seeing that it is the season for the fresh sheep's milk and yogurt. They sense the coming of spring.

Henry Luper says that there are two kinds of people. One group are a hundred percent objective, realistic and ordered. They have not the least bit of unexplainable pains; they are all reason. But which kind of reason ? The reason that dominates the material world. I met an example of this group in a restaurant a few years ago. I was reading 'Le Monde'. It had an article analyzing the situation in Bolivia. They had just had a coup d'etat. Next to me, a man, while eating his meal, had bent his head trying to read as much as could be seen of the third page. I was not paying any attention. When I realized he was interested, I asked him which page he was trying to read. He said the third page. The third page is economics. That is the one which gives the price of cars, objects and also the daily rate of exchange. It is useful for the wealthy.

As I was interested in the article on Bolivia, he asked me what my occupation was. He wanted to know if I was Bolivian. I said, 'No. I am not a politician, but an Iranian student from Mashad.' I asked him what he was doing. He said he was a student from Israel. 'I live with an income of 600 francs per month,' he said. I asked him why he was interested in the rate of exchange adding, Whatever it may be, what difference does it make to us what the rate of exchange is for the French franc?'

He said, 'You are from a corner of the world and not even a politician, but you want to find out what is going on in Bolivia. But I am a person who is living anyway I can with this 600 francs per month, in this place with these fluctuations in the rate of exchange for the franc, pound and dollar. It affects my life of 600 francs. I buy cigarettes, if the rate of the franc falls, my two francs will be worth two and a half francs and I buy food. If the position changes while I am studying the rate of exchange for the franc, if after a year, the increase of five centimes is added to the price of air fare, all of this has a direct effect on my life. But what you read never has an effect.' I remained silent. We looked at each other for awhile. We could clearly see how each of us was a fool in the other's eyes.

As Henry Luper says, there are two or three resources in man. One is reason, another perception and the other thinking. These are all terminologies. There is only one and that is understanding which forms the quality of what I receive and what I come to know. It is not that which reason says, or that which my feelings, as such, show me. There are different kinds of reason. Each person sees the world according to the character of his reasoning. This includes even the way he sees material objects and colors. Certainly, two types of reasoning will describe one color differently. We do not see the world as it really is, but rather, we see the world as we really are. This need, which is an essential part of man, has been explained with subtlety and extreme profundity in the philosophy of the creation of man.

The man who has had everything, who is satisfied and who has felt no need or suffering and who has had only pleasure and blessings within his reach, was told not to eat the forbidden fruit. But he was deceived by the devil and ate it. He reflected for the first time. It is all very clear what that tree was and the effort of Islamic and Jewish interpreters to verify whether it was an apple tree or a sheaf of wheat or something else is all in vain.

It is clear that after they ate the fruit, as the Qoran says, God came to see them. He called them, but they did not come. They said they were ashamed of their nude bodies. God realized that they had eaten the fruit of that tree. It means that they had not previously been aware of their nudity, indecency, ugliness and shamelessness. This was why they were happy. Because of this, they were in paradise. was why they were happy. Because of this, they were in paradise. It has been clearly and directly stated in the Qoran and the Old Testament that this was the fruit of perception and consciousness. The Qoran explicitly refers to it. It is clear from the text that as soon as man swallowed this forbidden fruit, the sight of paradise becomes an earthly world of pains, smaller than the needs of human beings. This is the meaning of fall and descent.

The Garden of Eden is on earth and it is this earth. We can see now as always that the more human beings eat of that fruit (consciousness the more they sense that their life upon the earth is constricted. They suffer more in sensing the inadequa- cies of others The less they eat, the more peace they have ant the more pleasure they experience. Their needs are immediately met by winning a lottery ticket.

This is why they say that in paradise, by just saying a prayer, they will have everything they want. can there be any thing simpler than this? And is there anything more true than this?

But why is this fruit, which has been eaten more than once by man and is continuously being eaten, forbidden? Because it makes the human being fall from that comfort, satisfaction, ease and pleasure and begin to feel things lacking in the world. The walls of unaware- ness close in on him, narrow the passage to his soul and cause him pain. He is always moving, searching, struggling, working and wanting. He will not be satisfied. Whoever eats from the fruit and attains another stage of consciousness, feels more need and this is what to rebel means.

Who is the one to rebel? The one who is conscious. Rebel against the will of God? What is the will of God ? The will of God is the law which exists in history. The will of God is the law which is inherent in nature. The will of God is the tribal laws and the laws of human societies. It is the law that exists in the physiology of my organism which makes me be part of mankind, a living being in this world.

Hence, the will of God which tells us not to eat from that fruit, is the four bounds, the four forces, the four chains that want to keep us in this atmosphere. When one reaches the state of perception and consciousness, one is freed from the determinations of nature, history, society and the self.

This is what Hegel calls absolute will, free from primordial nature, the primordial state of being, and this very term of Hegel's is what our mysticism is all about. It is with the same words of Hegel that our religion says that we will return to God. It is this very term which in our religion says, 'I created man in the image of Myself' and 'I made him successor upon the earth.' This means that the human being, in his struggle, becomes free from the bonds of nature and the laws that nature has used to build him. But because nature builds him, it rightfully intrudes. In this latter state, the human being is only an animal or a plant. He frees himself from the prison of history, for as historians say, each person is the result of his own history.

He is freed from prison, laws and social traditions. All human beings are products of their social environment, social laws and relations save those who reach absolute consciousness and are freed from their material and worldly prison. That is, they are freed from their paradise. This freed human being, to the extent that he has freed himself, reaches a state of consciousness and knowledge. We see that it is through this technique that we continue to free ourselves from social laws and thereby dominate society.

The human being of today, changes and builds his society, whereas human beings of the past were built as their tribe or society demanded. No one who is part of a tribe has ever reached the state of consciousness to be able to change his social traditions or change his religion or change his social relations and his life. He does not feel, for there is no 'I' for him. There is no free and liberated human being. The human being who is his own prisoner means that all the drives, attractions and tendencies which nature created in him to enable him to continue living, have bound his will in the trap of these physical demands. He pushes all of these away and then that human being reaches that absolute consciousness, the will to choose, and comes closer to God. He comes closer to the image of God in which he was created.

It is the human being who attains such a level of consciousness and feels liberated and separated who becomes lonely. It is this lonely one who sees the world to be too small. It is this lonely one that feels the anguish, it is the needs of this human being which are not satisfied by the earthly benefits and blessings of nature.

The human being never approaches colorlessness and should not wish to do so. Colorlessness means death. It means becoming a vegetable. The human being should wish to replace inferior needs with superior ones and hope to feel greater and higher pains. Who is the one who has more agitation and thirst? Not the one who is more prosperous or the one less so. This is not the question. It is the one whose needs are more and superior. It is this human being who is more anxious and under more stress.

In an Anthropology Conference held in Belgium, everybody agreed to name the twentieth century, 'The Century of Anxiety.' Why? All of the different considerations in various areas and occasions which I have mentioned here exist, and yet, it is undeniable that today's human being has more knowledge and is more conscious than in the past.

In Durkheim's words, the 'I' has appeared in contemporary man, meaning that the individual has developed, whereas the man of the past was a being living within the fabric of nature. The sap of life and nature were running in his veins and he was nurtured by it. By means of that sap, he was fostered, grew and found peace and order. But the lonely human being of today? But why lonely? Being with everyone? Is this the only need that a human being has? Which need? The need which comes about when an individual understands what he or she should be and is not. This need is constantly increasing. It reaches the state of more knowledge, consciousness and world consciousness and the need finally becomes independent from nature. At the same time that he knows that nature is a house that is shared with the animal and vegetable kingdom, he also knows it lacks something.

He needs to have the world sense him. The more lonely the human being becomes, the more alienated he feels. What Camus says is that contemporary man is alienated from everything. This alienated man feels closeness and familarity more than ever and he needs to feel familiarity, yet his family and the world are more than ever alienated from him. He senses in his nature, and in the depth of his thoughts that all boundaries will end when his feelings find continuation in this world.

Existence accepts death. But his feelings will continue. He weighs what exists with his spiritual and transcendent needs. He sees that he does not get enough and feels alienated.

This problem of alienation is not only a metaphysical problem. The alienation which Sartre, Camus and Heideger talk about is something which gives existence to art.

Science is the struggle of man to know what exists. Technique and industry are defined as: the means and the mental struggle of human beings for benefitting from as much as is possible of that which is. But art consists of the struggle of human beings for benefits which should exist, but do not. Therefore, the human being who sees himself alone, wants to set up, through art, a relationship with this earth and sky or with the objects which he is alienated from because they are not the same kind as he. He wants to color them with familiarity and understanding.

Thus, one of the things that art does is to help decrease the feeling of alienation of the conscious human being who has fled and alienated himself. How? It allows him to decorate the walls of his prison in the image of the house he wishes he was in and isn't. These objects, this sky, these stars and mountains do not understand him. He is left alone, stone-like and blind among all these objects. Art gives feelings to all these objects.

Our poetry is a perfect example. What most of our poems do is to reconcile the lonely poet with the crowd. This man who is lonely becomes understood through a candle. Art changes the candle into an acquaintance which feels the poet's animosity. Art sees the sun rise not as a revolution of the earth and sky but in a way that makes the sun suddenly appear in the sky. This does not fulfill his needs, but it is like a message from a friend. In this artistic deception, his feelings of alienation and separation from objects in nature becomes refined. Art also does something else. It allows the artist to make and create in the world something that does not exist in nature, but 'he needs it to be'.

The art of the past was kept at the level of imitating nature. Plato said, 'Art is the imitation of nature.' If art is imitating nature, then Plato's words are clear. Art is a game. It is deceitful and false. A man who has realities at his disposal must be made to simulate them. Would anyone simulate water? Where there is water, why should there be its imitation ? Plato may be right in thinking that it is only a game and all in vain, but I understand it quite differently.

Art is imitating precisely what is beyond the tangible, beyond nature, in order to decorate nature in its image, or to make something the human being wants to be in nature and does not find. It is there to fulfill his feelings of need and agitation, loneliness and most of all, his need to transcend, that is, separate himself from tangible, material needs.

This is why God entrusted art to man. He offered it to the earth, the sky, the mountains and oceans; none accepted it. This does not mean that they were asked, 'Oh mountain or sky, do you want it?' And they said, 'No.' So man picked it up. This means, rather, that mountains and oceans do not have creativity, they are not conscious and do not feel the need of things beyond that which already exists. They cannot feel. They are neither in need nor agitated and pained, nor can they create. It is the human being who picks it up. But what ?

He picks up the ability which he feels he has; he can choose; he can create. This is why I said that art is the expression of the power of creativity in human beings. In continuing it, in decorating it, it continues being. Being is the ultimate goal for everything, both the being of nature and that of the life of society, both organic being and the being of our human limitations.

Art is the expression of the human being's creativity and through the continuation of this being, it becomes an expression of the creativity of God, in order to create what he wants and does not find. Therefore, as Hegel says, 'Art has been evolving from the material and objective towards the perceptible, intellectual and subjective.'

By subjective, I do not mean the bourgeois idealism that one might have in mind and we all condemn. I have nothing to do with its philosophy. Rather, in the beginning, the human being was an absolute, non-conscious soul that penetrated the organisms of nature. Then the evolutionary process of that soul reached the human being. The human being is becoming conscious. The more conscious he becomes, the more he can sense the abstract which he himself represents. That is, as I see it, art brings consciousness to the unconscious soul of the human being because art, awakening the sense of the abstract, allows us to come to know God.

If you look at our own literature, the poetry of Manuchehri, Roudaki, Farrokhi, their wishes, their lives, their ideals and their needs are all objective, material and concrete. What are they longing fort They are longing for what there is but they do not possess, whereas Rumi is longing for that which does not exist.

It does not exist, we have found it.

That non-existent is my longing.

Art is searching for 'that' and industry is looking for 'this'. Industry is trying to find what there is in nature which is out of man's reach and reach it. This is exactly the opposite of what art is searching for. As we said, man seeks that which is not.

The more one struggles, the more one creates and the more one evolves, the more one will feel that one is becoming separated. As a principle, this is the motive for the evolution of man.

Manuchchri's love poems are at a very objective level and they do not have the least bit of human feelings in them. They are exactly paradise. Whereas when we reach Saadi and then Hafez and Rumi, there, in great abstraction, lies the story of feelings and expressions of the spirit. The world is imprisoned and paradoxically it is not there. One cannot even identify objectivity and materiality. Sometimes, when one wants to address this subject, the addressed feels him. He can well see that it has become a kind of consciousness. It has become exactly like the image of love and the breath of feeling. Sometimes it is not realized. Sometimes we cannot realize it.

What can I call It when I don 't know it?

This is not about the celestial lover, although it has reached the level of abstraction and transcendence. One can confuse them since limits belong to the sphere of objectivity. The difference of opinion as to what wine is made from and what it is, is all useless. The problem is to reach abstraction. In abstraction there is no boundary anymore and none of these categories and limitations exist in one's feelings. He is Manuchehri, as long as he uses words. It is the wine which he has received from his lover. After he becomes old and religious, it is obvious that his wine is something else and his lover of another sort. It is in this evolved feeling that he approaches abstraction. These arguments are appropriate in the study of life and works of Manuchehri and Farrokhi.

The abstract feelings reach the point of saying,

What can I call it when I don 't know it?

Why should I say I'm not, when I am in love with it ...

It is in the completely subjective, in the depths of the individual, far from the various natures and material objectives that this poetry reaches new poetry-modern poems.

My friend, Dr. Mokhtari, translated a book and gave it to me to read. This modern new novel was all about the description of objects. When you open a new novel, all you see is words about buses, buying tickets and cars and their honking. They are all describing common everyday life. It would seem as if-literature and art had escaped out of the interior essence of the human being. It has become objectivized and materialized. But in this novel, it says that, on the contrary, none of the external objects are the ones I am talking about. The tree I am talking about is not the tree that grows in the garden. It is the tree whose image is in my heart. I describe it. That man, of whom I am speaking, is different from the man that the biographer or the doctor talks about. He is a man who is in my mind. Therefore, I see him differently and it means something different to me.

Opposed to what Aristotle says, art has always been struggling to free itself from all that is objective, concrete and a subject of science based upon the humanism of ancient Greece, on the beauty of reality, on the beauty of the mountains and the valleys and, most of all, on the beauty of the human body. It tries to free man from these things as well.

But in the course of history, whenever art has been expressed freely and has not been the reflection of physiological needs, it has struggled to free itself from its bonds. All the artistic movements formed by artists, either with supernatural feelings or by ones without them, have tried to make art not so much a means to picture and describe reality or to define man, as his clear, existing model, but to use and recognize it as an inevitable challenge, a divine, creative becoming, the evolving of feelings and of the essential truth of man's being.

The most material of the arts is sculpture. Painting is more close to perfection. Why is it more perfect? Because it has one dimension less. It is two dimensional. As it has one dimension less of nature, it possesses one more potential to approach subjectivity. That is why we have in art today, great men such as Picasso. But in sculpture, such geniuses have not been able to develop, for they are bound in three dimensional forms.

Although dance is a classical art and a physical art, at the same time, that which it tries to embody is quite in accordance with the spirit, feeling and perception. Therefore, it can be the expression of an individual's inner feelings and an abstraction. Music has only one dimension which is time. Poetry is the absolute abstraction. This is why we see that in poetry we are able to express concepts in their highest form, whereas other fields do not lend themselves as readily.

Today, sculpture, which is the most material expression of old and new art, no longer tries to make us think we can make a statue of a champion or conceptualize the picture of a man or a woman. The artist does not use stone to build a body. A painter does not create a face with paint. They speak with stone and paint. Today we see that we can create better sculpture and painting than some of the works of artists.

An artist does not want to paint a nose like a real nose. How much is his own nose worth that he should try to simulate one? He creates a human being like Picasso created with one eye in the middle of his forehead. What is he trying to say? He wants to speak. The artist does not want to express that which is. He wants to say that the human being of today has become one dimensional. Picasso did not paint a painting of war and peace. He showed the philosophy ant meaning of war and peace. Just as I use the words of war and peace to express human problems, he uses the brush to speak of it, not by giving us the image of it.

Georges Saurat, a great impressionist painter, who might even be called one of its originators, says, "I may draw a horse. But this is not the horse in the field. This is the meaning and the concept of horse, expressed and embodied in the figure of a horse." He says, 'The people I have shown in the island painting, are people who have the curvature of their bodies composed of very fine points which were nothing but subjective images. We do not take any of these forms as conforming with nature. We take this as a joke. Certainly it is always easier to laugh at a new creation and no one needs any specialization or fairness in order to be able to beat it down. It is enough to say, 'I do not understand it. In this way, I will not be the one condemned, but him.'

The artists who painted in that style, where the curvature of bodies were made of an endless number of fine points and were nothing but subjective forms, made their paintings and colors clearer than those of Manet and Picasso and all the impressionists. The life shown in the picture belonged to no one. It was the reflection of a dazzling light. Spirit, substance and breath were foreign to it. Motion was removed from it. A confused scene flooded with the sun in an impressionist painting is not a piece of earth over which the silk of the sun draws itself.

He is not concerned with how he sees the sun or which kind of sun he needs. He creates it, as Khaqani and our other poets created the sun. There were some unfamiliar trees standing upright in the painting and some animals that Fourier, the famous zoologist, could never have imagined. The meaning of creating from non-being into being, is a responsibility of God and art, meaning the divine expression of art, the human being. The people Gaugin binds together are bound by something which Gaugin has created.

A sea could be seen which seemed to have flooded out of the mouth of a volcano, a sky that no eyes have as yet seen. There were the wild men, the alienated, the nonexistent beings with strange figures. He wants to talk about this human being. He is searching for him. He does not exist, so he creates him. This is who Rumi is looking for. He creates non-existent beings with strange figures. He wants to talk about this human being. He is searching for him. This is the human being whom Rumi seeks. He creates the non-existent, the human being that all men are looking for. one reaches the sun through mysticism, while another reaches it through his paintings. This human being, with his strange look, has hidden the unbound mystery in his innocent eyes.

Each signify something expressed through imaginary veils of pink and violet colored flames. Each one tells a meaning. It is a story with no veils, strange scenes, where animals and wild flowers grow and blossom under the fiery rays of the sun. Which Sowers grow and blossom in fire? Even plaster and stone transform into meaning, feeling, reflection and abstraction under artful hands.

Heidegger sees the human being and his true essence, which science has always neglected. Science keeps him from watching nature and searching into it. It still does. Some blame science, the science which alienates man from himself for not allowing the human spirit to liberate itself from the bonds holding it to nature's laws. For the only thing science and industry are concerned with is nature. They have left man alone.

Sartre feels the extension of the same loneliness and considers the world as lacking everything. He says that the human being should construct himself with his thinking and his will. Camus finds the alienation of man, the plague, here in this world. The altar that Lucres speaks about is this very world.

For whom? For the person who has reached that alienation and loneliness. That is the plague, the alienation. He reaches the state of absurdity and life becomes useless. Who? The human being. Which human being? The one who until now accompanied the 17th, 18th and 19th century bourgeoisie who wanted to build a philosophy of paradise for himself in a philosophy which would replace religion. The bourgeoisie had forgotten that man rebelled from sin millions of years ago in the paradise that God had made for him, where there was consumption, prosperity and joy.

How can you have the man who has reached such transcendent consciousness, stay calm and feel satisfied in the bourgeois paradise that you are making for him in life, in time and on this earth? The human being revolts. The revolt that we see is the revolt of the comfortable man. It is exactly the same revolt that he made in paradise.

Today, man becomes conscious and revolts. If any man, wherever he may be, in the divine paradise and the garden of Eden, attains consciousness, he revolts against all there is, longing and struggling in love for what there should be. This is the law of humanity.

We see today that art in the East has revolted against the humanism of Greece and the humanism of the Renaissance which went towards pleasures, showing the beauties of nature, the volume and line of the human body, human beauties and remaining in the framework of objectivity and reality. Along with philosophy and well-off people today, the revolt is also against the bonds of being and objectivity, not drowning oneself in the idle comforts, rather, continuing and finding the continuation of the human being.

Realism means remaining within the framework of what exists. This is stagnation in man which does not fit the rebelling, ever- thirsty man. In the same way, idealism is a betrayal of man who is true and real.

Along with philosophy and the human being of today, art is the standard bearer of this revolt against nature and objectivity. It is the standard bearer of man's self-discovery and the blossoming of and giving blossom to the transcendent possibilities and even those which transcend the human intellect and logic.

Art of today, in opposition to the past, does not remain in amusement, rather, it is to build something higher than the human being and humanity. This is a mission and a trust. As Metterling said, 'When God had made all things, He reached man. He stopped and left the creation to man himself.' Creative human being means artist, the human being who cuts away from everything, while he is creating, and with his creativity, he creates his art, he cries, he tries, he builds himself and he expenses himself. Whoever writes a new book, creates himself. A human being becomes his own creator and builds himself to the extent that his art contains the sense of his own humanity, not in the sense of his knowledge or his craft.

Where is the art today that takes the form of a bourgeoisie philosophy of entertainment as its mission for life? It is n the paradise which he wants to build on earth which consists of eating, pleasures and remaining in paradise. To consider art as pleasure, a pastime activity, a relief from the rigid industrial life, is to give this lowest of tasks to the most sacred of activities, that is, art, as if it were only to entertain whereas art should be put into the hands of a creator, as prophecy has been sealed.

Source: http://www.shariati.com/savior.html

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Cheap hotel for the writer

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 16, 2008

To look for the inspiration or whether for the research material, a writer often carried out the trip to a place. Many interesting places that became the aim of the writers. Among them is Spain. Many big writers were born in this country. Also many interesting places for your writing material.

If you want to trip to Spain, there were several places that could be considered for transit. There were many hotels with the reachable cheap cost, have complete facilities to support your writing activity. Cheaperthanhotels offered all your needs like accommodation and transport. See the Chep Spain Hotels offer. Or see the available hotel in Alicante, one of the most beautiful town in Spain, see at Cheap Alicante Hotels.

Besides, Spain, there are many place that most visited by the writer. Don't worry, wherever your trip distination, Cheperthanhotel provide you the best hotel at the best price. You may see the cheap hotel offer: Cheap Madrid Hotels, Cheap Hotels in Barcelona, Cheap Costa Del Sol Hotels

So, you do not need to throw more energy and big cost for your accommodation during your trip, just enjoy the trip and spent the night comfortably in hotels that were recommended..

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The Death of Author: Merayakan Kematian Pengarang

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 16, 2008

Ketika teks terlahir, maka pengarang telah tiada. Dia digantikan oleh pembaca yang bebas menafsirkan teksnya.

Ketika membaca sebuah cerita, novel atau cerpen, muncul pertanyaan siapa sebenarnya yang tengah berbicara? Apakah sang hero, sang tokoh sebagai individual, ataukah sebenarnya suara pengarang sendiri yang disusupkan melalui suara tokoh-tokohnya maupun melalui sang narrator?

Sang tokoh sebagai individu yang tengah memperjuangkan ideologi, misalnya, marxis, atau mungkin sang pengarang yang membela ideologi kaum feminis?

Dikatakan oleh Roland Barthes dalam esainya The Death of The Author bahwa ketika pengarang menulis karyanya, maka sebenarnya dia (pengarang) telah mati. Dia terpisah dari teksnya. Teks tersebut sekarang sudah bukan miliknya lagi.

Pengarang adalah figur modern yang merupakan produk dari masyarakat sejak jaman pertengahan Empirisme Inggris, Rasionalisme Prancis, maupun yang lainnya. Dari sana Sastra kemudian menganut prinsip positivism.



Berdasar prinsip positivsm tersebut, hanya berlaku kebenaran tunggal, seperti yang berlaku pada kebenaran dogmatis agama. Dalam hal ini kebenaran versi pengarang memiliki kedudukan yang setara dengan kebenaran tuhan seperti dalam agama. Pengarang sebagai penyampai pesan tuhan (The massanger from God).

Akibatnya, pengarang mendapat porsi yang berlebihan. Apa yang disampaikannya adalah kebenaran. Kebenaran yang tak dapat dibantah lagi. Pun demikian teks yang dihasilkan, tak dapat dibantah oleh pembaca siapapun.

Secara kebahasaan, pengarang tak lebih hanya sebuah tulisan siap saji (instance writing). Seperti kata “I” tak lebih dari tulisan I, bukan pengarang yang sebenarnya. Bahasa mengetahui subyek bukan orang. Ia kosong, tak berarti apa-apa, di luar ucapan yang ditentukan. Pembacalah yang kemudian akan mengisi kekosongan ini, memaknai I menurut pemahamannya masing-masing, menurut kepentingannya masing-masing pula.

Penghapusan sang pengarang dimaksudkan untuk membebaskan teks dari pengarang. Ada jarak antara pengarang dengan teks. Ketika teks itu terlahir, maka teks tersebut sudah terpisah dari pengarangnya. Ada sifat temporal.

Dalam grafik berikut ini menjelaskan tentang konsep tersebut:



Buku dan pengarang berada dalam garis lurus terbagi antara sebelum (before) dan (sesudah). Pengarang saat ini mungkin akan berbeda dengan pengarang yang dulu, ketika menulis buku. Apa yang diyakininya sekarang bisa jadi tidak sama persis dengan yang dimilikinya dulu, bahkan sudah berubah.

Dari grafik di atas juga bisa dijelaskan bahwa garis yang memisahkan antara before dan after benar-benar memisahkan antara author dan book. Keduanya memiliki dunianya masing-masing. Maka setelah melewati batas itu, book yang dihasilkan oleh sang author sudah menjadi produk lain, yang bukan miliknya lagi.

Teks bukan merupakan sederatan kata yang mempunyai arti teologis (pesan pengarang dari tuhan) tapi dilihat secara multidimensional sebagai sebuah variasi bentuk penulisan. Teks tersebut tak pernah asli. Begitu juga teks yang ditulis oleh pengarang. Ia hanya tiruan dari apa yang dilihat dan dirasakan oleh pengarang. Pengarang hanya menerjemahkan dari apa yang dibacanya, bukan menyalin arti yang sebenarnya.

Dengan kata lain, hidup tak lebih dari meniru buku. Dan buku itu sendiri hanya merupakan sebuah tisu tanda, dan tiruan yang hilang, yang tertangguhkan maknanya.
Pembaca adalah pembaca yang tengah membaca teks secara utuh, tanpa ada yang dihilangkan. Kesatuan teks berada pada keasliannya bukan pada tujuan dibalik teks itu sendiri. Pembaca bukan dirinya yang sebenarnya. Dia adalah orang yang tengah membaca teks yang entah siapa pengarannya. Seperti yang dinyatakan dalam kutipan di bawah ini.

"...The reader is the space on which all the quotations that make up a writing are inscribed without any of them lost; a text’s unity lies on its origin but its destination.



Ketika pengarang dihapuskan, teks menjadi bebas. Menyerahkan teks pada pengarang hanya akan membatasi kebebasan teks. Karena teks bersifat tidak terikat. Ia hanya sederetan abjad yang kosong tak berarti apa-apa. Pembacalah yang kelak akan mengisinya, memenuhi gelas yang masih kosong itu, dengan pengalaman dan kepentingannya masing-masing.

Ibarat sebuah buku, buanglah sampulnya. Hapus nama pengarangnya. Cukup ambil isinya, tak usah lagi dipikirkan siapa pengarangnya.

Pandangan ketika author ditemukan maka teks akan berbicara mengahadapi dilema karena author sendiri sebenarnya juga bagian dari masyarakat, dari obyek yang dikritik. Pengarang sendiri tidak bebas nilai. Dia bias. Dia tak pernah bisa obyektif. Lalu bagaimana teksnya akan ditempatkan sebagai sebuah kebenaran tunggal?

Itulah sebabnya mengapa sastra (akan lebih baik bila sekarang menyebutnya tulisan) menolak untuk memberikan rahasia, makna yang diagung-agungkan, membebaskan dari apa yang disebut aktivitas antiteologi, gerakan revolusioner yang menolak kebenaran mutlak, yang pada akhirnya menolak kebenaran Tuhan dan hipotesisnya.

Peristiwa kematian pengarang ini pada sisi lain akan dibarengi dengan kelahiran pembaca. Pembaca adalah orang yang berhak menerjemahkan teks. Teks bersifat tidak terikat. Maka akan sangat mungkin terjadi multitafsir antara satu pembaca dengan pembaca lainnya. Ini tak masalah.

Pembaca dengan segala pengalaman membacanya, sebenarnya diam-diam telah menyususun strategi unuk mencari kebenaran sesuai yang dikehendakinya. Lalu kenapa kita masih sering manafikan kehadiran pembaca itu? Maka biarlah teks yang berbicara. Biarlah pembaca sendiri yang memaknainya, memenuhi gelas yang masih kosong itu.


*This article written by Muhamad Sulhanudin, originally published at the writer's blog hanyaudin.blogspot.com

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College Book Art Association Biennial Conference, Call for Proposals

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 16, 2008

Art, Fact, and Artifact: The Book in Time and Place

January 8-10, 2009

hosted by the University of Iowa Center for the Book

The art of the book has been at once visionary and documentary, imagining a future that has yet to exist while finding inspiration from the resources of the past. The first biennial conference of the College Book Art Association seeks to bridge the worlds of book art, book history, cultural criticism, and curatorial work through appreciation of the book as an aesthetic sensorium. Scholarship, artistic practice, and the digital age have evoked for us the multimedia nature of the book experience. Animated by practices that define anew the cultural record, contemporary book creators unsettle the categories whereby art is valued and appreciated, making new objects that express the range of human experience. Roused by research into the materiality of texts, humanities scholars and institutional curators have summoned new facts to explain communication technologies, writing an alternative history of word and image in the book format. Pressed by political urgencies, artists and researchers have measured the meanings of art and fact through bookwork that serves as cultural criticism. At a time when the book arts have never been more vital, “Art, Fact, and Artifact” builds from these energies and seeks presentations, papers, and studio demonstrations from artists and scholars interested in the future, present, and past of the book as an expressive form.

**KEYNOTES TO BE ANNOUNCED**

Along with session programming, the conference agenda will include exhibits, tours of facilities, open discussion time, and portfolio review. Further details will be forthcoming.

For the conference program, the organizers invite submissions for individual presentations, pre-formed panels, and studio demonstrations.

Possible topics may include but are not limited to:

  • Artist presentations of current work or work-in-progress
  • Studio demonstrations: process/experimentation/resurgence
  • Questions of materiality: the actual, the physical, the virtual, the digital
  • The book as document
  • Curating and collecting: what do we want? how do we know?
  • The procedural turn, then and now
  • Flat art, spatial art, temporal art, book art
  • Intimacy and the book: sex, touch, the private, the public
  • Institutions and theories of value
  • The book as witness
  • Questions of practice: modeling methods
  • Ideologies of the book
  • Craft perspectives: the hand in the work
  • History and documentation: writing our history and our now
  • Humble books and an aesthetics of the ordinary
  • Conceptualism, bookwork, and installation
  • The role of criticism
  • Space, pace, and plane
  • The theory and practice of exhibition
  • Reading and the hand-operated codex
  • The archive as muse

**DEADLINE: PROPOSALS DUE JUNE 1, 2008**

Send proposals as email attachments to:

center-for-the-book@uiowa.edu

or

University of Iowa Center for the Book
216 North Hall
University of Iowa
Iowa City, IA 52242
Attn: Art, Fact, and Artifact

All proposal submissions should include: proposal title; name and contact information; a biography or vita of participants; audio-visual needs.

Individual proposals: A 200-250 word description of a paper (abstract for a 20-minute talk), artist presentation (20 minutes), or studio demonstration (include time requirements for demonstrations).

Organized sessions: a 250-word overview of proposal. Organizers should assemble 3 speakers for a paper session (include individual paper abstracts in addition to overview), 3-4 presenters for an artist presentation (include individual descriptions in addition to overview), 1 moderator and up to 4 contributors for a panel/roundtable discussion, and 2-3 studio specialists for a demonstration.

For artist presentations, please include 5-10 representative examples of work to be shown (jpegs, pdf or powerpoint).

For studio demonstrations, detail facilities requirements, including equipment, materials & supplies, and space requirements. Please be specific.

Alternative formats encouraged.

Graduate students: the CBAA encourages graduate student participation. The UICB has secured funding to help defray costs for student presenters. To apply, include a brief letter describing your need for assistance.

Presenters must be members of the College Book Art Association. To join, see the CBAA’s website at http://www.collegebookart.org

For more information, contact Matthew P. Brown (matthew-p-brown@uiowa.edu) or Julia Leonard (julia-leonard@uiowa.edu)

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Stylistics Meets Cognitive Science

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 16, 2008

Studying Style in Fiction and Readers’ Attention from an Interdisciplinary Perspective

Readers’ attention has been studied in stylistics using notions such as foregrounding (MukaÍovský) and psychological prominence (Leech and Short). In this article, we offer a fresh perspective on this topic from Cognitive Science. Our research draws on the psychological framework of “depth of processing” (e.g. Sanford and Sturt), which provides a context for studying different degrees of attention during reading. We identify stylistic features and narratological cues in fiction which we intuitively feel to be “attention-capturing devices.” We then use a new psycholinguistic technique, the text-change detection method (Sturt et al.), to test whether the stylistic features we have selected really do make readers more attentive, in the sense of making them more alert to textual detail.

This is an abstract from the article on Style, volume 41, number 2,Summer 2007

Read full article, order now at http://www.engl.niu.edu/style/archives.htm

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Cheap phone cards

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 16, 2008

Do you have any relatives live in another country and sometimes you miss him/her, but you cancel your plan to phone him/her because of the high cost for international calling? Or you are running a business which has international market and you will often contact your partner?

Phone cards would be the most efficient way for to keep in touch with your relatives or your business partners. To buy cheap phone card on the net, you may browse at the rich com. This site sell prepaid phone cards to call international destinations ranging from asia to middle east and europe. You can use this site to search for best phone cards to call from United States to virtually anywhere in the world with much cheaper rates than from large companies.

Just simply choose the country and click "Get Phone Cards", your phone card and calling cards will be delivered online instantly. For the detail information, visit http://www.therichcom.com

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Book Review: "The Art of Shakespeare's Sonnets"

Written by eastern writer on Tuesday, April 15, 2008

Helen Vendler, widely regarded as our most accomplished interpreter of poetry, here serves as an incomparable guide to some of the best-loved poems in the English language.

In detailed commentaries on Shakespeare's 154 sonnets, Vendler reveals previously unperceived imaginative and sylistic features of the poems, pointing out not only new levels of import in particular lines, but also the ways in which the four parts of each sonnet work together to enact emotion and create dynamic effect. The commentaries--presented alongside the original and modernized texts--offer fresh perspectives on the individual poems, and, taken together provide a full picture of Shakespeare's technique as a working poet.

Vendler's understanding of the sonnets informs her readings on an accompanying compact disk, which is bound with the book. This recorded presentation of a selection of the poems, in giving aural form to Shakespeare's words, heightens our awareness of voice in lyric, and adds the dimension of sound to poems too often registered merely as written words.

For more information about this book,
Helen Vendler, and Shakespeare, visit http://www.hup.harvard.edu/features/venart/home.html

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Perlunya Kajian Khusus Sastra Terjemahan

Written by eastern writer on Monday, April 14, 2008

Usulan menarik disampaikan oleh Siswo Harsono dalam diskusi bedah buku "Edgar Allan Poe dan Sepilihan Karyanya" (8/1). Menurutnya, dewasa ini banyak sekali buku-buku sastra hasil terjemahan yang bisa dengan mudah ditemukan di rak-rak toko buku, namun hingga kini belum ada satu kajian khusus terhadap karya-karya sastra hasil terjemahan itu.

Kajian secara khusus ini perlu, mengingat banyaknya karya-karya terjemahan, namun hingga kini belum ada perhatian secara khusus dari pihak akademisi atau kritikus.

"Masalahnya, kita akan meletakkan buku ini di rak mana. Di jurusan Sastra Inggris Undip tak ada satu kajian tentang sastra terjemahan. Seharusnya ini diperlukan. Bisa dibuka untuk Jurusan Sastra Inggris maupun Sastra Indonesia".

Ketika sebuah karya diterjemahkan, sebenarnya pada saat itu pula hasil terjemahan sudah menjadi produk baru. Dalam hal ini menerjemahan sama halnya mencipta ulang. Ia sudah terkontaminasi oleh subyektivitas, selera dan kepentingan-kepentingan penerjemah.

Menerjemahkan karya sastra seperti halnya menerjemahkan bidang-bidang lain, tak hanya memindahkan bahasa sumber ke bahasa target. Namun lebih jauh dari itu, penerjemah harus mampu memindahkan atau yang paling mungkin mencarikan padanannya dalam kebudayaan pengguna bahasa target sehingga pembaca karya terjemahan bisa merasakan kehadiran bahasa dan situasi cerita secara lebih dekat.

Dalam kasus penerjemahan karya sastra, akan banyak dijumpai istilah-istilah yang sulit bahkan tak bisa dicarikan padanannya dalam bahasa Indonesia. Misal, akan kita sebut apa "Burung Hering" yang terdapat dalam salah satu cerpen EdgarAllan Poe, dalam kamus perburungan yang dikenal oleh orang Indonesia.

"Apakah kita bisa menyebutnya dengan burung gagak?" tanya Siswo

Selain itu, Siswo juga mengritik beberapa bagian yang hilang yang membuat kesatuan dalam buku itu menjadi rusak. Mula-mula ia memberikan catatan pada cover, apakah lukisan karikatur di sampul itu berdifat ikonis atau indeksikal. Bagian yang hilang yakni adalah alusi nietchzean yang seharusnya dipertahankan. Ini akan mampu menjelaskan bagaimana Poe bisa keluar dari penderitaan.

Mengenai penerjemahan dalam buku ini, Aulia memberikan masukan agar penerjemah berani menerjemahkan teks dengan tidak terikat dari teks asal. Menerjemah tidak cukup memindahkan kata atau mencari padanan. Tapi lebih jauh dari itu, bagaimana bisa memindahkan impresi-impresi saat membaca karya tersebut ke dalam hasil terjemahan.

Menanggapi kritikan-kritikan dari para pembicara, Tia Setiadi justru merasa berterima kasih kepada kedua pembicara yang menurutnya sangat kritis. "Dari dua kali diskusi buku yang diadakan di Yogya dan Solo, baru kali ini saya mendapatkan kritikan yang pedas. Ini forum yang paling cerdas," katanya.

Namun demikian, baginya dalam penerjemahan tetap akan ada yang hilang dan semuanya tak bisa seperti asalnya. Dan ia mengatakan, penulisan biografi dari sumber terjemahan belum banyak dilakukan di Indonesia bahkan dia berani mengklaimnya sebagai penulis yang pertema melakukannya.

Ia mengakui menyusun buku ini sebagai upaya untuk membuat dokumentasi proses kreatif para penulis yang menurutnya tradisi ini di Indonesia masih sangat kurang.

Sebelum buku "Edgar Allan Poe dan Sepilihan Karyanya" ini, dia sudah menerjemahkan buku pelukis Van Gogh yang hidupnya juga amat dramatis. Setelah buku yang kedua ini dia merencanakan akan membuat seri yang sama, yakni biografi penyair Amerika Walt Whitman.

Apa yang dilakukan oleh Tia Setiadi ini adalah usaha yang patut diapresiasi. Buku ini memberikan kontribusi yang amat berharga untuk khasanah sastra di negeri ini. Apa yang dilakukannya sangat berbalik arah dengan mereka yang menggarap buku yang dipastikan akan banyak pembacanya karena mengangkat topik-topik populer. Sementara buku ini kecil kemungkinan untuk mendapatkan pembaca dari kalangan luas. Tak salah memang jika Tia menulisnya karena kecintaan.

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Ultraviolet air cleaners

Written by eastern writer on Monday, April 14, 2008

Many people worrying if ultra violet radiation causes skin cancer. The fact is, the light has to hit your skin for it to damage you, and the light will be encased inside of it. Also, you don't immediately get cancer even if some UV light hits you. If you are never exposed to ultraviolet light, your body can't make Vitamin D and you run the risk of getting rickets or other diseases.

I'll inform you the importance of ultraviolet air cleaners. Ultraviolet light is a wavelength of light that you've probably heard of because it's what causes sunburns. In a cleaner, though, it's a good thing - it doesn't just hurt your skin cells, but also kills germs.

Today there are many Ultraviolet Air Filtration Systems, some of them do not use UV light to kill germs, they are labeled as using UV, but they use it to generate ozone which then kills the germs. This is a different issue health-wise. The EPA (the Environmental Protection Agency) has warned that this could be dangerous in closed in areas. Make sure if you're getting one, it isn't an ozone generator.

Look this 2 brands of ultraviolet air cleaners. Honeywell HHT-145 UV Antibacterial Tower and Germ Guardian GG-1000 Air Sanitizer. Find more information at http://www.aircleanersguide.com/uv-air-purifier.htm

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'Ayat-ayat Cinta' survives heavy-handed treatment

Written by eastern writer on Sunday, April 13, 2008

Filmmakers might be jealous of any number of factors in Hanung Bramantyo's latest film, Ayat-ayat Cinta (Verses of Love) of: the best-seller novel of the same name from which it was adapted; ample promotion; exotic locations; and even the otherwise problematic long delayed-release which does drive curiosity.

However, these elements may pale in comparison with the advantage of endorsements by particular religious leaders in the name of a certain religion.

And this is where the record must be set straight: giving religious consideration to this film is in the same vein with fussy trivializing concerns about downplaying the religious theme in Da Vinci Code.

In other words, neither Ayat or Da Vinci are religious films. The Passion of the Christ is, and so are legendary Indonesian filmmaker Chaerul Umam's 1977 epic Al Kautsar and his 1982 critically acclaimed Titian Serambut Dibelah Tujuh (with English title, The Narrow Bridge). Each of these has a storyline which unfolds in a religious contexts, driven by religious teachings.

Despite backdrops, costumes and certain lines in Ayat undoubtedly rooted in a particular religion, the film moves its story forward from a purely love story.

The main character, Fahri (Fedi Nuril), is believably sincere in a too-good-to-be-true manner, which unsurprisingly attracts not less than four women during his stay and study in Cairo, Egypt. They are his college mate Nurul (Melanie Putria), whose high-profile family makes Fahri feels inferior; Noura (Zaskia Adya Mecca), a hapless victim of domestic violence who turns against Fahri; Maria (Carissa Putri in a somewhat mind-bogging dubbed voice), his jovial neighbor; and Aisha (Rianti Cartwright), who Fahri meets in very unlikely circumstances.

These four greatly different women, each with their own desire to love and have Fahri, provide the film with a succession of grand events that verges on melodrama.

Nothing is wrong with that of course. If we have forgiven stylish 1950s Hollywood director Douglas Sirk for over-the-top soapy dramas like "All that Heaven Allows" and "Written on the Win", ushering them into the halls of fame, similarly themes will always be welcome.

Nevertheless Ayat is beset by flaws that hijack the film's potential to become an epic classic.

The trouble starts with Hanung Bramantyo's treatment of Ayat as a burden to be borne. Indeed, it is not an easy feat to translate pages of widely read novel for the screen; in this case, his too-careful method often boomerangs. Also, in the screenplay by Salman Aristo and Ginatri S. Noerwhich point-of-view shifts unhelpfully back and forth between Aisha and Fahri.

Through his technically superb direction Hanung does his best to save it though, boosting the production values. Allan Sebastian, Hanung's frequent collaborator in art direction, does a commendable work in livening the film's interior sets with nuances of a vibrant Egypt. Add to that cinematographer Faozan Rizal, who often works with Hanung as well, whose panoramic views are a feast for the eyes.

Ayat's opening scene of flowing sands will strike film buffs as an imitation of openers in "The English Patient" or "Lawrence of Arabia". It is a soothing rip-off, though. While too much like a postcard, these scenes provide light moments to an otherwise weighty script.

The same praise, however, cannot be given to composer Tya Subijakto, whose musical score interferes with absorbing the film. She demonstrated what she did in "Sang Dewi" (The Goddess): sudden entrance of exaggerated orchestra, usually kicked off with strings seriously annoys and can reduce the intensity of carefully crafted scenes.

Given the high splendor factor, it is surprising then the film boasts fine performances from its actors. They are especially good given that Hanung has yet to prove himself an actor's director, having thus far benefited instead from the persona of his actors -- for example Nirina Zubir in both "Get Married" and "Kamulah Satu-satunya" (You're the Only One) and Ringgo Agus Rahman and Nadia Saphira in Jomblo (Singletons).

Joining the aforementioned ranks from Ayat is Fedi Nuril, who finally delivers his showmanship as every man's leading man. His unthreatening good looks benefit greatly his impossibly well-behaved character, and Fedi's understanding of his character gives him a surprising depth, which leads to a likable and charismatic turn.

Sitting nicely next to him is the often under-appreciated Rianti Cartwright, who was consistent and effortless in "Jomblo" or "Pesan dari Surga" (Messages from Heaven). As her face has to remain beneath the hijab (Islamic head scarf) most of the time, she lets her eyes do the talking, to a notable result.

Equally notable then is the film itself that, despite its shortcomings, has given a strong color in the present circus of Indonesian cinema. Doubted if it may invoke other similar films to come in the near future, but for all it's worth, Ayat is given a warm welcome in our yard, and hopefully, beyond.

(Ayat-Ayat Cinta is currently showing in nationwide 21 Cineplex cinemas. English subtitles are available at select theaters in Jakarta.)


Source: The Jakarta Post, April, 14 2008

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Art for the Soul

Written by eastern writer on Saturday, April 12, 2008

Surveys show that 30 percent of Americans claim to be very interested in "learning more about spiritual direction," and another 32 percent say they are fairly interested. People of all ages appear to be interested in spiritual direction, a fact that is notable since churchgoing, prayer and many other forms of religious participation draw more heavily from older rather than younger segments of the population. Women are more likely than men to express interest in spiritual direction, but interest cuts across all levels of education. Church members are considerably more likely to be interested than nonmembers; indeed, the fact that more than four church members in ten express serious interest in learning about spiritual direction suggests that there is a huge opportunity for churches to do more to fulfill this interest.

The data also suggest that interest in the arts is one of the factors reinforcing interest in spiritual direction. Among those at the high end of the Artistic Interest Scale, nearly half say they are very interested in learning about spiritual direction, whereas at the low end only one in eight says he or she is interested in spiritual direction.


The relationship between artistic interests and spiritual direction is not coincidental. Spiritual direction is usually understood as a matter of the heart, rather than one strictly of the mind. Directees are encouraged to clear their minds of intrusive thoughts that prevent them from experiencing the presence of God in their lives. Breathing techniques are often part of the cleansing process. The body’s connection with mind, heart and soul is usually emphasized. Art, music, poetry, and participation in the arts through pottery, weaving, chanting or creative writing are often included in programs concerned with spiritual direction.

Pendle Hill is a Quaker center for study and contemplation in Wallingford, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1930, it was conceived as a kind of seminary for laypeople interested in understanding more about the Quaker tradition and in ministering through their own lives and work. Today Pendle Hill offers weekend conferences and retreats, five-day courses, and a resident study program consisting of three ten-week terms each year. Sally Palmer directs many of the activities at Pendle Hill that connect the arts with spirituality. Through an acquaintance, she joined a weekly meditation group at Shalem Institute outside Washington, D.C., in the 1970s and has been meditating regularly ever since.

"The whole practice of meditation and of silence was very foreign to me, having grown up in mainline Protestant churches. Silence in those days often meant 20 seconds of the choir singing ‘Sweet Hour of Prayer,’ and the minister and everybody else fidgeting. So sitting in stillness, in silence, was totally new to me." At first, meditation seemed bizarre because it was so unfamiliar. "But I was in a covenant relationship with this meditation group and found that although the sitting was very difficult for me and the practice itself took real discipline, it seemed to be impacting the rest of my life in significant ways. In that sense it was reminiscent of my experience as a jogger. I used to jog and hated the jogging itself, but it made a big difference in my life. The group that I met with was primarily clergy and some Roman Catholic sisters. I was one of two laypeople. The sharing of life experiences, our faith journeys, and what was happening in our meditation times was very important and moving to me."

Since 1975 Palmer has lived at Pendle Hill, taught classes, counseled spiritual seekers and headed its art program (except for the years between 1985 and 1990 when she lived and taught at a Benedictine monastery and ecumenical retreat center in Wisconsin). One of her favorite courses teaches students to explore creativity, playfulness and prayerfulness by working with clay; another is titled "Weaving as a Spiritual Pathway." She encourages her students to use "pottery, weaving, or whatever we’re working with as metaphors for their own spiritual journeys."

Typically, the class begins with a period of silence, followed by a quotation connecting weaving to the spiritual journey, and several minutes of silent worship. "I try to let go and ask that the Spirit move through me and work with us in the class. I see all of my students as potential teachers as well as learners and try to create a space where they can teach and offer the wisdom that they bring from their own life experience.’

Weaving and working with clay give students who are otherwise preoccupied with thoughts about their work, their families and personal issues an opportunity to focus their attention elsewhere. The rhythm of the loom or of the potter’s wheel and the tactile sensation of the yarn or clay break through the cycle of ordinary concerns. Sally hopes the students will experience some of the transformation that she experienced when she first started working with clay: "I would sit down at the potters wheel and be lost for hours. I felt a deep connection to an unnamable within me. It was very much a centering process, and I still, when I need to get centered, go to the studio and throw pots. The clay and the earth remind me of my connection with God’s creation, with materials, with the fluidity of clay. It’s very beautiful."

For some students, weaving or working with clay becomes a time of prayer and may even substitute for more traditional forms. Palmer thinks it is still important to pray intentionally, rather than letting artistic practices take its place. She attends daily meetings for worship with the community and helps lead a weekly service of intercessory prayer involving staff and resident participants at Pendle Hill. Over the years. she feels, her understanding of prayer has grown. Yet she believes firmly that prayer ultimately defies understanding. "It’s a mystery to me! That’s part of my fascination, I think. I know that connection is extremely important to me and yet sometimes it seems very elusive."

The trouble with prayer, when traditionally understood as talking with God, is that it too often becomes a purely mental or verbal activity, leaving the body, as it were, in a poor second place compared to the spirit. This is why Palmer believes the physical aspects of artistic work are so important. Weaving and working with clay involve bodily movement. To bring movement even closer to the foreground, she often includes dance and motion in her workshops.

"My work with movement has been an effort to connect with my body and to connect body and spirituality. I sometimes become disembodied in terms of my work with spirituality, but we are given bodies. Furthermore, my faith is incarnational. So the more connection I can make, the better I am in terms of my own spiritual growth. We do shed our bodies eventually, but we’ve got to live with them, and most of the time I do try to honor my body and its needs."

Discipline is a recurring word among spiritual directors and directees. To get anywhere in one’s spiritual life, they insist, requires focusing one’s efforts, perhaps over a period of many years and through times when results seem all too infrequent. Palmer says she took up weaving because it was a way to learn this kind of discipline: "I remember defining it as my spiritual discipline because I found it very difficult. I’m not a natural weaver. There’s a discipline to it that I rail against. There’s a tedium to setting up a loom, and I saw it as a kind of spiritual discipline to engage in this process, and I still do. There is a kind of mantra in the rhythm of throwing the shuttle in the loom, in the setting up of the loom. It’s one step at a time. There s no way you can push it."

The rhythm becomes its own discipline, providing a method for getting from one step to the next, just like the discipline involved in daily prayers, chants, meditation or devotional reading. For Palmer, doing something that does not come naturally puts her in touch with her own limitations and thus with her need for God. Weaving itself becomes a kind of metaphor for her relationship to God: "All of this is very relevant to my own spiritual journey, and I’ve learned a lot about myself by watching myself in the studio, I’m impatient, and yet there is a step-at-a-time discipline in weaving: the weaving of the fabric of life and the interconnection of the thread. Somebody once spoke of how the warp is really the given of one’s life, the pieces we’re given to work with, But what we can do with it is the woof, the design that we weave. All of those are metaphors and images important in recognizing our connectedness: in recognizing that we are given a set of givens, but that we can work with those givens in a kind of co-creation."

Discipline is one of those perplexing ideas that is perhaps best captured in metaphors and images. It is expressed better through the act of writing than as something that one writes about. Knowledge of discipline comes from the struggle, from engaging in the daily grind, more than from theorizing about the nature of discipline. This is why artists themselves provide some of the most valuable insights about spiritual discipline. Whether they have tried to teach others spiritual discipline through the arts, as Palmer has, or have simply found their own artistic endeavors to be a lesson in spiritual discipline, they show that devotional life is not so much about prayer or meditation as isolated attempts to reach God, but about devotion itself as a mode of life, an orientation to the sacred.

Monica Armstrong is a painter who lives in Germantown, Pennsylvania. A devout Roman Catholic, she has been studying spiritual direction for the past few years at Chestnut Hill College. She sees a strong connection between the discipline it takes to be an artist and growth in her spiritual life. "First of all, I’ve got to show up. Set aside a special time that’s regular. Don’t allow interferences. Have whatever it is you need in terms of supplies, whether it’s reading or music or space to move in or whatever it is that you need to open yourself up."

She says the key to showing up is remembering that the responsibility to do so ultimately falls on you: "Nobody can do your art work. You can only do your own. If you don’t balance your checkbook, the bank will do it or your husband will do it or you just go out of business. But if you don’t do your art work, that’s your life undone. The level of commitment that’s necessary to survive as a professional artist is so profound." She sees a direct parallel with her spiritual life: "There’s a way that you can do art and there’s a way you can do spirituality where you can get people to tell you what to do, but it’s their way. If you’re going to do your own life, your own work, your own spirituality, you’re on your own path. You have to do it."

This notion of doing things her own way is not just an abstract idea. Over the years, she has learned that some things help her to pray, just as they help her to do her painting, and others interfere: "I have to have music, I have to do movement. I have to exercise at least four times a week for an hour, or my body gets so tight that I can’t be open spiritually. I hate exercise, but it’s a discipline I have to do."

Michael Eade, a painter in New York, explains the connections among art, spirituality and discipline this way: "I see the daily discipline of making art as a practice, and like the practice of a belief system, I feel bad if I don’t do it. I’m always working on some project. It could be in my thought processes that I’m painting and getting ready for the next day. It is very disciplined. In all artists [who] achieve some level of completeness in their work, there’s a lot of discipline."

An actress who lives in New York cautions that one should not get carried away with the idea of spiritual discipline. "God loves you all the time, and he doesn’t love you more when you pray than he did before." Still, she argues, it takes discipline to grow. "You change if you show up a lot. You can’t expect to meet the cute guy who works at the library if you never go there. You have to keep going there. Prayer is like that: you have to do it a lot. You learn to listen and understand and hear the cues. Acting is like that, too. It isn’t all just standing up on the stage and emoting. It’s listening, learning to listen to each other, watching body stuff, showing up, having the discipline, trying again and again and again and again."

Most of the people we talked to echoed this idea that discipline implies a commitment to hard work, and that hard work is necessary to grow spiritually, just as it is to develop one’s artistic talents. But some of the artists we talked to recognized that this view of discipline is limiting. It focuses too much on the struggle to master techniques and not enough on the desire that propels a person toward painting or sculpture—or prayer—and the fulfillment that comes from pursuing this desire.

One of the best illustrations of this larger view of discipline comes from Jack Stagliano, professor of studio art at Villanova University. As an Augustinian friar, he has had ample opportunity to reflect on the relationships between spirituality and the arts. "Almost all of the art that really engages me comes from the Roman Catholic tradition," he explains, "especially the medieval Latin hymns. Doing and making are acts of faith. I see the process of doing and making as a spiritual exercise. It can be gardening. It can be cooking. It just happens that for me it’s putting paint on canvas.

When asked about discipline, Stagliano’s first impulse is to quote an elderly friar who used to insist that "there’s no growth without struggle." To his ear, this idea reflected the Catholic tradition of mortifying the flesh in order to grow spiritually. Something about it has never seemed quite right He uses his experience as an artist as an example: "I’m not sure whether discipline means punishing yourself by being in the studio a certain number of hours and slaving over a hot painting, or whether it means something else. For me, I would think it’s almost more about finding the time to do the thing, the painting. But the act of the painting may not be a discipline at all. In other words it may be choreographing the rest of your life to allow yourself the three hours of time that you need. That might be the more disciplined part of it." In a similar way, the discipline required to have a rich devotional life may not involve doing something for 15 minutes a day that proves to be painful. The actual time spent communing with God may be quite enjoyable. But to achieve this rewarding time, it is probably necessary to structure the rest of one’s schedule, and that may take discipline.

He believes, too, that discipline, ironically, may consist of getting to the place where one no longer tries to control everything. Artistry requires a certain amount of spontaneity, and there may be a spiritual lesson to be learned from reflecting on this need for spontaneity. Stagliano puts it this way: "I think initially in the spiritual life and initially as an artist one is concerned with what we call ‘formal issues,’ with understanding color theory, understanding how to use line forms, color, design and shapes. In the early spiritual life, discipline means not having your mind wander if you are trying to meditate, or learning to recite prayers from a book. But I think one of the major wisdoms of spiritual growth is essentially learning to let go. I think that’s probably one of the wisdoms of the spiritual life. In my painting, there’s also that need to let a more spontaneous thing occur. I’m sure you’ve heard the story of a Japanese calligrapher who spent his whole life doing calligraphy and finally said, ‘I don’t do the lettering any more. I just hold the brush and the brush does the lettering.’ I would like to think that that’s the direction one moves toward as one grows older in spiritual life, just as in the arts"

The other word that frequently comes up when artists talk about discipline is attentiveness. Learning to sculpt requires being attentive to the configuration of the stone. Becoming skilled as a painter involves being attentive to the colors on ones palette and paying close attention to the details of the model or object or the effect of one’s own brush strokes. Similarly, a meaningful devotional life depends on concentrating one’s attention for a period of time on the act of praying. Attention to one’s desires is important, and perhaps even more important is the attention one pays to focusing on God.

Jack Stagliano learned attentiveness as a student, but it is also an idea that has become more meaningful to his spiritual journey as he has matured: "Attentiveness is perhaps an Eastern idea, although it certainly can be found in the West both in Protestant and Catholic writers. One of the things that I was taught even as a novice by one of our very elderly friars was ‘Do what you’re doing.’ That was a primary thing for us as students. When you were in the chapel, you were to be praying. When you were playing basketball, you were to be playing basketball. When you were doing laundry or scrubbing toilets, you were supposed to be doing laundry or scrubbing toilets. Attentiveness to what you are doing at the moment is most certainly a key to spiritual growth."

These examples make it abundantly clear that not all varieties of music, art and literature are likely to be included as part of people’s devotional activity. In conversations with hundreds of people of all ages, ethnic backgrounds and regions, not a single person mentioned that his devotional life had been enriched by Snoop Doggy Dogg or Motley Crüe. We may have missed someone upon whom these musicians have had a positive spiritual impact, of course. But it is much more common for people to mention classical music or lyrics with explicit Christian content, icons and pictures of biblical characters, or poetry that focuses specifically on spiritual themes.

The variety of music, art and literature that contributes to Americans’ devotional lives is nevertheless considerable. If some prefer to pray with Bach or Beethoven playing in the background, others opt for Amy Grant, Enya, or an old recording of Elvis singing gospel hymns. Poetry from the Bible takes its places alongside selections from Annie Dillard and Maya Angelou.

This material—these songs and pottery classes and poetry—are sufficiently available in the wider culture that virtually everyone is in some way exposed to them. Entertainment conglomerates know that there is a market for gospel and New Age music, and for English choir performances and meditative classical recordings. The same is true of publishing giants that know it is possible to sell 20,000 to 50,000 copies of an inspirational book by Mary Oliver or Kathleen Norris. Congregations are often the places where people learn about these resources, either by hearing a poet mentioned from the pulpit, by singing something that stays with them during the week, or by participating in a small group whose members share tips about favorite authors, new CDs or retreat centers. Yet it is not the congregations that produce or market most of the art and music to which Americans turn in their devotional lives. The artists and publishers, the musicians and recording companies, are industries that extend well beyond congregations or denominations. Moreover, most people who talk about the role of music and art in their devotional lives also mention that their musical and artistic interests have been encouraged by the wider exposure to the arts that they received in school and continue to maintain by attending concerts, visiting galleries and purchasing CDs and paintings.

Because music and art are organized on a scale that far exceeds the control of religious organizations, it can legitimately be asked whether this influence is subverting that of the churches. Our study suggests that this concern is largely unfounded. Americans are, as they have always been, a religious people—generally not noted for the depth of their spirituality, but broadly oriented toward spirituality nevertheless. When they turn in their devotional lives, as a growing number of Americans appear to he doing, to music and poetry and art, they are guided by instincts that were nurtured by their religious upbringing and that are still oriented toward deepening their relationship with God.

The role of music and art in devotional life is also shaped by the pervasive conviction that it is possible to somehow feel the presence of God. Most Americans intuitively sense that prayer should be different from reading the newspaper or studying for a science test. Mood and ambience matter. One’s mind should be quiet. The space and time in which one prays should be set apart, sacralized in a way that differentiates them from the hustle and bustle of daily life. Not all prayer need be this way (certainly not the brief utterances that people squeeze in their workaday routine), but some of it must be the 15 minutes in the morning or evening that people with the most serious interest in spirituality point to as the core of their devotional lives. In these times, one expects to hear from God as one prays – perhaps not audibly, but at least by feeling more comforted, secure or serene. Music and art help. They set the mood, bringing one’s feelings and even one’s body into a state that seems more in tune with the divine.


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This article written by Robert Wuthnow, originally published at http://www.religion-online.org. Robert Wuthnow is a Century editor at large and a member of the faculty at Princeton University. This article is adapted from Wuthnow's new book All in Sync: How Music and Art Are Revitalizing American Religion, published by the University of California Press. © 2003 by the Regents of the University of California. It appeared in The Christian Century, May 3, 2003, pp. 24-29. Copyright by The Christian Century Foundation; used by permission. Current articles and subscription information can be found at www.christiancentury.org. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock.

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Human Rights: The Struggle for Iran

Written by eastern writer on Saturday, April 12, 2008

2003 Nobel Peace Laureate Shirin Ebadi to Speak at Union Ballroom on the University of Utah campus.

"If the 21st century wishes to free itself from the cycle of violence, acts of terror and war, and avoid repetition of the experience of the 20th century... there is no other way except by understanding and putting into practice every human right for all mankind," remarked Dr. Shirin Ebadi in her 2003 Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech.

The second annual Tanner Humanities Center's World Leaders Lecture Forum welcomes Iranian attorney and human rights activist Dr. Shirin Ebadi. Her talk, "Human Rights: The Struggle in Iran," will take place on Friday, April 18 from 11 a.m. to noon in the Olpin Union Ballroom on the University of Utah campus. The event is free and open to the public.

A towering figure with a commanding voice that will not be silenced, Ebadi courageously champions democracy and basic human rights for women, children, and all individuals. Her influence extends far beyond the borders of her county, inspiring hope that Islam, democracy, and human rights co-exist despite the challenges faced in these turbulent times.

She is the first Muslim woman as well as the first Iranian to receive the coveted Nobel Peace Prize.

Ebadi earned her law degree from the University of Tehran, and from 1975-1979 served as president of the city court of Tehran, one of the first female judges in Iran. After the 1979 revolution she was forced to resign, declared by the revolutionaries as unfit to serve. At one time in her struggle, she was marked for death by those who sought to still her voice. Ebadi now works as an attorney defending political dissenters and men, women, and children victimized by the legal system.

Bob Goldberg, professor of history and director of the Tanner Humanities Center, remarked that, "the University of Utah is honored to bring to campus and community so important a human rights activist as Ebadi. She is a role model for anyone who believes in the power of the human spirit to change repressive conditions and better the lives of ordinary men and women."

For detailed event information contact Melanie Ward at 801-581-3732, or visit http://www.thc.utah.edu. Interviews with Bob Goldberg can be arranged through the Tanner Center.

Source: http://www.unews.utah.edu

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Artscience: Creativity in the Post-Google Generation

Written by eastern writer on Saturday, April 12, 2008

Author: David Edwards*

Scientists are famous for believing in the proven and peer-accepted, the very ground that pioneering artists often subvert; they recognize correct and incorrect where artists see only true and false. And yet in some individuals, crossover learning provides a remarkable kind of catalyst to innovation that sparks the passion, curiosity, and freedom to pursue--and to realize--challenging ideas in culture, industry, society, and research. This book is an attempt to show how innovation in the "post-Google generation" is often catalyzed by those who cross a conventional line so firmly drawn between the arts and the sciences.

David Edwards describes how contemporary creators achieve breakthroughs in the arts and sciences by developing their ideas in an intermediate zone of human creativity where neither art nor science is easily defined. These creators may innovate in culture, as in the development of new forms of music composition (through use of chaos theory), or, perhaps, through pioneering scientific investigation in the basement of the Louvre. They may innovate in research institutions, society, or industry, too. Sometimes they experiment in multiple environments, carrying a single idea to social, industrial, and cultural fruition by learning to view traditional art-science barriers as a zone of creativity that Edwards calls artscience. Through analysis of original stories of artscience innovation in France, Germany, and the United States, he argues for the development of a new cultural and educational environment, particularly relevant to today's need to innovate in increasingly complex ways, in which artists and scientists team up with cultural, industrial, social, and educational partners.

About the Author:
David Edwards is founder of Le Laboratoire, a new artscience center in Paris, and Gordon McKay Professor of the Practice of Biomedical Engineering, Harvard University.

Source: http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/EDWART.html



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Theology and Imagination

Written by eastern writer on Saturday, April 12, 2008

Ring Lardner, upon the occasion of his first visit to the Grand Canyon, remarked, "What a marvelous place to throw old razor blades." He was not usually a disrespectful person. But the sight of that incredible canyon, with the amazing riot of color and space, so overwhelmed him that he could not find words to match the experience. A wry, humorous aside sufficed. Most awe-inspiring events are so vast that words are inadequate for our response. So it is that preachers and pastors, who risk growing familiar with the mysteries of God, often are reduced to speech that may sound trite or at least (what is the word?) preachy. Words are the tools of our trade, so to speak. We are frequently invited to "say a few words." At public gatherings, we are expected to be profound and clever at the same time. Often we retreat into the formulae and well-tested expressions, the language of the religious professional.

The persistent dilemma of religious thought and speech is the struggle for adequacy in forming language about the things of God. This may be called the "Moses Syndrome" -- the more overwhelming the task of preaching the more inadequate we feel (Exodus 4:11-17). But speak we must. Experience of God requires reflection on the things of God, and reflection requires communication of the power of experience. Some religious traditions are moved to silence and speechlessness. Advanced forms of some eastern religion focus on sounds without voice -- like the "oom" or the tinkle of temple brass. But theology to westerners necessarily has been expressed in verbal statement.



In this mode of communication we are a part of the larger western sense of knowing. Because the western way of knowing and speaking has involved philosophical models and the use of syllogism, story, metaphor, and propositional statement, theology has followed these forms, especially the latter. Experience reduced to propositional language has led to propositional theology. To affirm the creed is to affirm the existence of the Holy One. To deny the creed is to place oneself outside the community of faith. Orthodoxy becomes agreement with propositional statements, often conditioned by less than ultimate considerations. The enormous philosophical reliance of theology can be noted in the dependence of Augustine on neo-platonism, Aquinas on Aristotle, Luther on nominalism, Lutheran confessionalism on scholasticism, and, since 1800, liberal theology on Kant.

Yet, by and large, theology is "church theology," that is, despite the fact that it draws heavily on general philosophy, it tends to become the speech of the confessional enclave. Gerhard Ebeling has said that people have a "troubled relation with a speech they do not understand." To the extent that religious speech in our time is a speech of the enclave, the evangelistic (telling the story) mission is going to be difficult.

Yet there has been a resurgence of cultic or enclave-type speech in recent times. The revival of Islam is startling because of the political possibilities inherent in strident fundamentalism. The Vatican also has attempted to interfere in the theological work of Hans K. Kung and other prominent liberal Roman Catholic theologians. We have seen a woman excommunicated from the Mormon Church because she challenged its theological traditions. The growing political power of American fundamentalism is also a part of this phenomenon.

While the religious groups seem to be speaking more stridently in their own languages, there is a realization that the grant of authority to the churches to speak definitively about the "things of God" has largely been wit·hdrawn. Someone has said, "A few groups huddle closely around a creed, but, for the most part, creeds have no standing." Church leaders, bureaucrats, opportunists, use those occasions to reassert the ancient authority of their dogmas.

The way out is not to abandon the theological enterprise, but to reflect on the appropriate language for and forms of talking about God. Given the history of western philosophy, words have been thought to be not simply the most appropriate language for theology, but the only language in which communication is possible. For the West, the Word is exhausted in words. But much of life is lived beyond words. In this vast web of our common life words are seized and shaped to the expressions required of them. They are indispensable instruments of our being human. But human life is not exhausted in words. Marianne Moore once remarked: "Expanded explanation tends to spoil the lion's leap."

In a fine essay in Theology Today, Roland M. Frye notes that the Renaissance's great achievements in perspective and mathematical precision created a condition in which it became possible to make literal descriptions of reality. Inevitably, where it was impossible to provide a literal description of reality, it became fashionable to assume that one should stay silent, or deal only in abstractions. (Frye recalls a television show in which David Frost was interviewing the Archbishop of Canterbury. Asked to describe God, the Archbishop began by citing, "Something with one and beyond one that fills one with awe, and reverence, and gives one a sense of supreme obligation. . . ." At this point Frost interrupted to comment, "That could be the Internal Revenue Service.") In that cultural setting, understanding was largely narrowed to a choice between expression in a literal sense or through cloudy abstraction. Large areas of meaningful human experience were thus relegated to over-simplification either through blatant literalism or vague transcendentalism. Metaphor, analogy, image, music, had all lost credibility.

The closer we get to the edges of the mystery of things, the less adequate our explanations become. The word mystery has its root in a Greek word that means "to shut one's mouth." There is no way we can abandon words in theology, but there may be required of us a new modesty about the meanings of words. That is, what Frye calls "blatant literalism" and "vague transcendentalism" must be replaced by a new sense of the vitality of words and their use in other contexts than propositional arguments. Meaning becomes attached to words. Dictionaries are codified collections, not of meanings, but of uses of words. We assume that we find meanings in dictionaries. We find only the consensus of the uses of words. How words are used is the problem of preaching and theology. Paul Valery once remarked that "words are planks of wood we place over chasms to cross over. If we try to dance on them in the middle of the journey, we will not cross over. Words have more uses than meanings."

That phrase of Valery's suggests the poet's conviction that the vocation of the poet is to create language, not to codify it. The root of the word poetry is the Greek word to make and it has reference to the making of pots and pans and houses and barns and fences and other utilitarian objects. How have we understood poetry to be a matter of abstractions? The poet and the preacher! theologian have a common vocation of finding the words to communicate the power of experience without codifying it and bending it into dictionary definitions.

The religion of Israel exercises this modesty in its care for the naming of God. To name something is to own it, to control it (cf. the Genesis story). Also, the prophetic tradition in Israel seemed consistently to treat Yahweh as subject rather than object -- that is, words from God expressed the will of God, not the shapes or meaning of God. So iconoclasm -- the abhorrence of the use of opaque images -- became a permanent feature of the religious tradition. And it continues in our period as a Protestant principle (e.g., Tillich).

The dominance of word in our religious history has led us to the conclusion that people without history (words to explain themselves) are no people at all. One of the important achievements of recent scholarship has been the recovery of religious traditions of subdued cultures. What we may once have held triumphantly to be unique elements in our Judeo-Christian tradition now can be seen to have roots in despised cultures like Ugarit. These discoveries do not damage the power of religious insights. They do, however, suggest a new joy at the discovery of the human religious enterprise. So liberation theology has on its agenda the recovery of a history of religious identity that had become obscured or erased by the dominant culture. The intense current interest in the history of women in religion is not an idea exercise, but of the essence in establishing the integrity of our religious history. Part of our new modesty about the authority of word in theology is the willingness to live into the experience of other traditions as we plumb our own theological sensibilities.

The role of imagination in religious thought and experience therefore takes on new urgency. In addition to words, form and movement and sensibility and sound shape our vision of the world. Most human experience is affected by these modalities. We make images with these elements, we draw analogies, we tell stories, and we grow uneasy with religious language that seems sometimes to contradict these modalities.

Imagination is the process by which we make a language out of the shapes of events -- the concrete elements of our own experience and the experience of our communities. Often it accomplishes this by using overlooked and even despised fragments of personal and cultural experience. As John Dixon has suggested, a part of Israel's tradition was blood and smoke, not only prophecy.

What was forming and decisive for religion in that understanding is also part of who we are. We are more likely to find such themes in dance or music or poetry than in systematic theology. Innovators like Stravinsky relied not so much on breaking with convention and tradition, but with identifying the power of discarded traditions. He once remarked that his work was built on the detrita -- abandoned ideas of others who went before. The innovating newness is a recalling to our senses of a wider world than our current orthodoxies normally permit. This has been the special vocation of the artist in a post-Reformation history of religion. R. G. Collingwood, in a famous phrase, has suggested that "the artist prophesies, not in the sense of foretelling, but by telling us the secrets of our own hearts, at the risk of our displeasure. Art is the medicine for the worst disease of the mind -- the corruption of the consciousness."

Beyond the use of the imagination in widening our experience of the world and refining our consciousness, the use of the imagination in religion can save us from another problem -- namely, the tendency to take pleasure in cruel things. Abstractions are the refuge of the scoundrel. Concreteness is the environment of human sympathy. Vietnam was the season of growing up for most of us Americans. We were saturated with euphemism -- body count, mega-death, and a hundred other cruel words to separate us from our humanness. To get inside the other's world is to share something of a wider humanness than one's own. We are then candidates for what the hymn writer called the "wideness in God's mercy."

Another use of the imagination is the recovery of narrative and story as the mode of religious expression. For Christians to speak of God only in precise descriptions and formulations is to risk making the formulations God. Borden Parker Bowne, one of my early heroes, was once asked if he had the "second blessing." He replied, "No. I have had the first, the third, the fourth, the fifth, but I'll be damned if I've had the second." The statement of the experience of American Wesleyan holiness had become an absolute; and, although he profoundly exercised piety, Bowne refused to be told what forms of piety were normative. So the re-telling of the story gets us on our way behind normative stopping points and suggests fresh beginnings. There is a fine Hasidic tale of a rabbi who went to a place in the forest, lit a candle, said a prayer, and told a story. His student could not find the place in the forest, but did light a candle, say a prayer, and told a story. His student could not find a candle, but he said a prayer and told the story. His student forgot the prayer, but he told the story.

Flannery O'Connor, remarkable in that she was at once profoundly orthodox and imaginative, suggested that her vocation as an artist was to re-tell the gospel parables in startling and shocking ways. "For the blind one has to write in large figures and for the deaf, one has to shout," she said. Her letters, recently published, have been named by Sally Fitzgerald, the editor, The Habit of Being. The word habit is used in its Catholic meaning -- the discipline of life -- a life focused on the being of things as primary revelation.

Our time has a passion for surety, for security, for simplicity. These things probably have never existed -- save for brief moments when they were established by denying them to some other community. Theology in these days is risky business. It walks between the presumed at-homeness of the past and the anxieties of the future. Our concern for opening the boundaries of the mind in our religious language requires love and imagination. Our theological work in the school and parish will be informed, hopefully, by a new modesty that values imagination.

Wallace Stevens was one of the remarkable poets of our period. In his poem "A High-Toned Old Christian Woman," Stevens suggests that religionists "Take the moral law and make a nave of it/And from the nave build haunted heaven." But the rationalists "Take the opposing law and make a peristyle,/And from the peristyle project a masque/Beyond the planets." But "fictive things," says Stevens, "wink as they will." What wry humor. Despite all our energetic efforts to organize the universe and human events, those wonderful things simply are there, in their concreteness, winking at us!

This habit (to use O'Connor's phrase) is present in the biblical tradition and has been lifted into systematic theological method by the United Methodist Church itself. The latter is to be noted in the quadrilateral definition in the Disciplinary statement that insists on scripture, tradition, reason, and experience as elements of our theological work. I think this 1972 statement will have long-range influence in our work in coming generations in the church. But it did not blossom full-blown from abstraction. It grew out of the creative concentration of the ways we perceive the things of God. And that perception (itself an act of imagination) is a frequent accent in both tradition and scripture. Hearing and seeing, speaking and keeping silent, building and tearing down -- the rhythms of faith seeking understanding.

Once Flannery O'Connor was attending an affair with what she called "big intellecturals," Catholic writers and commentators. This is what she remembers in her letter to a friend:

Having me there was like having a dog present who had been trained to say a few words but, overcome with inadequacy, had forgotten them. Well, toward morning, the conversation turned on the Eucharist which I, being a Catholic, was obviously supposed to defend. Mary McCarthy said when she was a child she had received the Host, she thought of it as the Holy Ghost, being the most portable person of the Trinity. Now she thought of it as a symbol and implied that it was a pretty good one. I then said in a very shaky voice, "Well, if it is a symbol, to Hell with it." That was all the defense I was capable of, but now I realize that this is all I will ever be able to say about it outside of a story except that it is the center of existence for me. All the rest of life is expendable.

Dogma that is not experienced in one's guts is not helpful -- it is abstraction. Concreteness is the beginning of poetry. Experience is the context of imagination. Scripture is the seedbed of language of faith. Religious speech ought to keep us in reality, not otherworldliness.

The words of Jesus to the theologians and bureaucrats in the Temple are instructive. The gospel story recorded in Mark 12 includes the elements of the uses and misuses of religious speech. Jesus was involved in a discussion the purpose of which was entrapment. That remains a lower form of the uses of religious speech. To the Herodian, how he replied to the question about taxes was politically interesting. To the Sadducee and Pharisee, how he responded to the question about the woman married to seven brothers was professionally perilous. To the proof-texter, how he responded to the question "What is the greatest commandment?" would test his orthodoxy. Jesus first suggested modestly that his colleagues did not understand either the scriptures or the power of God. Bound to the tradition, they could not be free of the tradition to experience the power latent in trust in God.

But Jesus did recite the great Deuteronomic confession. There is one God, and you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength. (And the second is equal to this. You shall love your neighbor as yourself.)

In Deuteronomy 5:45, from which Jesus was quoting, the phrase "love God with all one's mind" does not appear. How more serious researchers provide reasons for this puzzle is for further research. But what about this as a possibility? Frustrated with theological method as entrapment and proof-texting, and dogmatic self-assurance, Jesus inserted a new word by adding "loving God with one's mind." That made the proof-texters and traditionalists sit up and take notice! The Greek word here is dianoia -- a word with more uses than meanings. It has more to do with coherence, seeing through the poetic mode, putting events and concepts together. It is not simply rational work, although it includes that. That would be the appropriate response to folk who had grown unimaginative in sensing both the scripture and the power of God.

Then, for good measure, recalling the questioners to the genius of prophetic Judaism, he said: The second commandment is this: you shall love your neighbor as yourself. All this enterprise is focused finally on the love of God aimed through the faithful toward the neighbor. And who is my neighbor? "The poor, the broken-hearted, the captives, the blind, the bruised, the outcasts, the persons who have no hope" (cf. Luke 4:18).

Notably, this Markan episode ends with the phrase, "No one dared ask him any more questions."

Jesus' method was to call us to the uses of imagination in crafting the meanings of words. That is why the religious community must do its own research and imagining and forming because it necessarily grows out of the context of encounter of faith.

How risky this always is. Joseph Heller's comic novel Good and Gold suggests our human equivocation:

Gold never doubted that racial discrimination was atrocious, unjust and despicably cruel and degrading. But he knew in his heart that he much preferred it to the old way, when he was safer. Things were much better for him when they had been much worse.

All his words had a starkly humanitarian cast; yet he no longer liked people.

Theology in our time will require more, not less, scope. Problems will be increasingly angular. Shapes will inform and frustrate. But we will in faith continue to shape new ways of speaking about the things of God informed by events that spill out of our own histories and self-consciousness. Our pastoral theology will find allies in other modes of seeing and hearing the Word of God, and we will wait with patience and modesty for the appropriate definitions of what it means to love God in the world.


Author:
F. Thomas Trotter. A graduate of Occidental College (AB) and Boston University (STB, Ph.D), Trotter was Dean and Professor of Theology at the Claremont School of Theology. Later he was General Secretary of the Board of Higher Education and Ministry of The United Methodist Church and President of Alaska Pacific University. His special interests are in religion and the arts and religion in higher education. This essay appeared in Loving God With One's Mind, by F. Thomas Trotter, copyright 1987 by the Board of Higher Education and Ministry of the United Methodist Church. Used by permission. This document was prepared for Religion Online by William E. Chapman.

Source: http://www.religion-online.org

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International Car Shipping

Written by eastern writer on Saturday, April 12, 2008

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Tales from Masnavi

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

From Tales from Masnavi, Jalal al-Din Rumi
translated by A.J. Arberry

Content
Introduction
1-The Lament of the Reed Flute
9-The grammarian and the boatman
12-The man who said, 'It is I'
21-Omar and the man
22-The man who stole a snake
25-The king and his falcon, on penitence
42-The blind beggar
44-Galen and the madman
45-A story of Moses
48-The man who married a harlot
56-The old man and the doctor
60-The miracle of the wine
61-The mouse and the camel
65-The prayer that was answered
67-The Jackal that pretended to be a peacock
71-The Elephant in the dark
73-The striker and the stricken

Read the complete content at http://www.khamush.com/tales_from_masnavi.htm

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Book Review: "State Terrorism and Political Identity in Indonesia"

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

Author: Ariel Heryanto

Approximately one million innocent Indonesians were killed by their fellow nationals, neighbours and kin at the height of an anti-communist campaign in the mid-1960s. This book investigates the profound political consequences of these mass killings in Indonesia upon public life in the subsequent decades, highlighting the historical specificities of the violence and comparable incidents of identity politics in more recent times.

Contrary to the general notion, state terrorism was a common, persistent and basic mode of rule in the 20th century with a diversity in scope, intensity, duration and style. In many societies today it is close to having the status of a standard rather than aberrant mode of state rule. It has, at least on the surface, some modern and rational elements, and it often proves to be a highly effective force for enhancing – not undermining – social ‘order’ and ‘stability’.

Also contrary to the general view, state terrorism is not an exclusive characteristic of the Communist, Fascist and Islamic regimes. In no less significant ways it also characterises the so-called “liberal democratic” nation-states of the West. Many authors in the West have made separate but similar arguments to the effect that Western states, especially the USA, have been the most important terrorist states in the world since 1980, if not before. Anti‑state and non‑state terrorism is no more common or dangerous than state terrorism itself.

State terrorism is defined not merely by its perpetrating subject agents. It also distinguishes itself from other forms of terrorism that can be attributed to any uncontrolled accident or sporadic and ad hoc non‑statist ones. Its violence is differentiated from violence the primary motives, targets or effects of which are the physical harm or material destruction of the victims.

Where political violence is deliberately designed to invoke state terrorism, agents of the state select the victims either randomly or individually. Selection of victims may be based on more than one criterion, but the victims always represent the ultimate target population of the terror (for example, communism or Islam). Their representativeness may or may not conform either to objective reality or to the victims’ subjective worldview. What counts is that they appear to fit into the dominant discourse. The selected victims are not necessarily prominent members of the target group. As a result, any ordinary member of the target group can identify her/himself with the victims and conceive of the possibility of her/himself being the next victim. State terrorism often victimises vulnerable or even compliant individuals.

It is as important to distinguish between terrorism and political violence as to acknowledge their connections. Terror, as conceptualised in this book, refers to the severe and often long-lasting fear that may emanate from major and spectacular violence. Major political violence hit New York and Bali and killed many innocent civilians. Each of these incidents terrorised a far greater number of people, including those who had never set foot in either place.

Terror has a lot more to do not only with the related mental suffering of those immediately or directly affected and in site, but with a greater number of people through mediated messages or images at very different places and times. It would be ridiculous to deny the links between mental and physical suffering, but the distinction between the two is fundamental in a study of terrorism.

Not every incidence of large-scale or sustained violence with a high death toll resulted in terror. Conversely, terror may prevail without constant and widespread violence on a major scale. Under Indonesia’s New Order regime (1966-1998) terror was kept alive by some knowledge of major violence in the past, and regular displays in the present of selected memories of that past hinting to the general population of its potential recurrence in the present. As evident in several other countries during the Cold War , and again after September 11, 2001, terror in New Order Indonesia was maintained and facilitated by vigorous martial law enforcement in largely non-war situations.

It has not been easy for many foreign observers to appreciate the level of mental suffering among Indonesians under the New Order, because most of the time these Indonesians appeared – in direct encounter, in postcards, or in the mass media – to be quiet and contented with their ordinary lives, not to speak of the comfortable material life and economic growth during that period. The smiling faces of powerless and terrorised subjects across the nation easily misled sympathetic but poorly informed foreign tourists and observers.

Approximately one million innocent Indonesians were killed by their fellow nationals, neighbours and kin at the height of an anti-communist campaign in the mid-1960s. Profound political consequences followed these mass killings, affecting Indonesian public life in subsequent decades. State Terrorism and Political Identity in Indonesia: Fatally Belonging highlights the historical specificities of the violence and comparable incidents of identity politics in more recent times. It seeks to examine where, if at all, there is any space for the largely repressed public to negotiate, avoid, or resist the suffocating political environment – decades after the actual killings in 1965-66.

I take issue with the general tendency to see the periodic anti-communist witch-hunts as nothing but a political tool in the hand of a powerful military elite and the authoritarian government of the New Order to repress political dissent, discredit potential enemies, or attempt to legitimise its responsibility for past killings. And I argue that elements of what began as an anti-communist campaign took on a life of their own, increasingly (though never totally) operating independently of the 1965-66 violence and of the individual subjects who appeared to be manipulating the campaign in the 1980s and 1990s.

New Order state terrorism is not unique, although its particularities are of great interest. Neither is its operation isolated or independent from unequal inter‑state power relations. Its global dimension is seriously considered in the concluding chapter of this book.

State Terrorism and Political Identity in Indonesia: Fatally Belonging, by Ariel Heryanto (University of Melbourne), Routledge (September 2005), will be launched by Dr Robert Cribb (ANU) in the University of Melbourne Bookshop, Tuesday 18 October 2005 (5-7pm).


Credits:
Review see: http://uninews.unimelb.edu.au/articleid_2846.html
About the book: http://users.tpg.com.au/arielh/041537152X/about.htm

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Cyber Monday coupons and promotional deals

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

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Di Seberang Seni, di Sebarang Kaji

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

This article discussed about the recent Indonesian visual art and its critic problems. Written by Nirwan Dewanto, editor of Sunday edition in Koran Tempo, for literary rubric, and a curator in Utan Kayu Indonesian cultural community. This article originally published at Jurnal Kebudayaan Kalam.

BERDIRI di tengah keluasan seni rupa Indonesia hari ini adalah mencoba sadar bahwa khazanah ini sedang melebur, atau berusaha melebur, dirinya ke dalam kenyataan. Seakan kita mengenali bukan lagi barang seni rupa, tetapi sekadar barang yang naik ke singgasana rupa oleh suara sang kurator. Dan sebentar kemudian barang rupa itu pun kembali menjadi sekadar barang karena kita kehilangan gema suara dan bayang-bayang sang kurator. Sementara itu, si pembuat seni rupa juga tergoda untuk membuat bukan sekadar barang seni, tapi benda nyata, jika bukan benda yang bisa mengubah kenyataan.

Barangkali tiada lagi senirupawan. Lebih tepatnya, makin tiadalah pembuat rupa seni–seni rupa–yang menyebut diri senirupawan. Tetapi, saya kira, hal ini bukanlah sekadar pergeseran arti (semantik) belaka. Lihatlah, kini kita hanya punya perupa. Pe-ru-pa. Bukan lagi peseni rupa, apalagi senirupawan. Kaum terhormat ini sekarang memandang, atau ingin memandang, diri sebagai pembuat rupa, bukan (sekadar) pembuat seni rupa.



Di depan sebuah lukisan kini, misalnya, mungkin saya tak bisa, atau tak boleh, terharu. Sebab seni lukis yang sebenar-benarnya adalah milik masa lampau, ketika modernisme masih merajalela, ketika setiap anggota umat manusia, termasuk juga pelukis dan pemirsa lukisan, harus menjadi seseorang yang mandiri. Bila lukisan tidak mati, maka matilah gagasan tentang seni lukis. Lukisan yang terhasilkan di masa kini boleh sekadar mirip foto hasil sentuhan program Photoshop, atau gambar Nickelodeon, atau rupa mainan di TOYS ‘R’ US. Tetapi saya tidak juga bisa menganggapnya sekadar barang biasa, sebab ia telah terangkat ke singgasana rupa oleh, katakanlah, jaringan internasional, di mana kurator menjadi simpul terpenting. Saya berkata, inilah matinya the painterly tradition. Tapi mereka berkata, inilah matinya the idea of painting.

Sekali lagi, saya berdiri di tengah hiruk-pikuk seni rupa Indonesia–atau seni rupa internasional, jika kita tak punya lagi pusat penilaian nasional yang berwibawa, seperti tiga dasawarsa yang lalu, misalnya. Saya tak bisa lagi melihat seni rupa tanpa diselimuti lebih dulu oleh suara sang kurator. Benarkah saya berharap dia segera pergi dari ruang pameran?

1Ungkapan Sanento Yuliman, dalam pengantar pameran Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru 1974, yang dikutip oleh Rizky A. Zaelani dan Asikin Hasan dalam naskah landasan kuratorial Biennale Jakarta 2006.Di depan sebuah karya seni media baru, saya memang mencari-cari apa yang istimewa, yang terbedakan dari, kalau bisa apa yang melakukan subversi terhadap dunia, terhadap benda-benda di sekitar kita. Tapi, bagaimanapun, saya telah terhalang memperbandingkan seni rupa pertunjukan dengan teater, seni rupa video dengan sinema, dan seni rupa instalasi dengan struktur rupa yang sebenar-benarnya (ingat, dalam kalimat ini "pertunjukan", "video", dan "instalasi" hanya kata sifat atau kata keterangan terhadap "seni rupa"). Sebab, terdapat wacana yang mengepung semua barang rupa itu, yang membuat pemirsa lebih menggunakan benak ketimbang indria, ini pun kalau si pemirsa cukup mampu bersentuhan dengan dunia pemikiran mutakhir. Inikah yang disebut "perasaan akan kekonkretan"1 itu?

SUDAH tiga dasawarsa ini–yakni sejak Sudjoko, Sanento Yuliman, dan Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru memulainya pada 1970-an–kita mengalami lelaku bongkar-membongkar, ungkai-mengungkai, dasar-dasar keberadaan seni rupa modern Indonesia (atau seni rupa Indonesia modern). Sementara itu, tidak ada yang berubah secara mendasar dalam hubungan antara seni rupa dengan publik. Bila senirupawan telah menjadi, atau menyebut diri, perupa, seni rupa tidak juga setara dengan rupa-rupa lain di luar dirinya. Bila kurator menjadi semacam intelektual publik, tidak juga gelanggang seni rupa menjadi gelanggang publik, sekurangnya gelanggang publik alternatif. Bila seni rupa atas menentang elitisme (katakanlah, dirinya sendiri), tidaklah berarti bahwa ia menjadi setara dengan seni rupa bawah; yang benar, ia meluaskan dirinya, memangsa seni rupa bawah.

Akankah lelaku bongkar-bongkar keberadaan seni rupa di lingkup nasional berakhir di awal abad ke-21 ini? Tampaknya tidak. Sebab begitulah yang terjadi di dunia internasional. Internasionalisme baru pada dasarnya adalah internasionalisme lama minus Erosentrisme plus dekonstruksi. Modernisme memang sudah bangkrut, tetapi segenap warisannya, dalam bentuk jaringan produksi dan kelembagaan seni rupa, sudah telanjur mengakar di mana-mana. Inilah bahkan yang membenihkan para penentang modernisme. Tapi benarkah modernisme, tepatnya gagasan modernisme, sudah mati?

Yang perlu dipersoalkan adalah bagaimana para penentang modernisme melihat modernitas dalam keseluruhannya. Bila modernitas adalah pelaksanaan nalar ilmiah dalam segala aspek kehidupan, maka, bagi saya, modernisme artistik adalah kembaran sekaligus kritikus modernitas itu sendiri. Kembaran: bahwa pencarian keseorangan adalah tanda gerak sejarah, tanda kemajuan. Kritikus: jika nalar ilmiah membekukan dunia menjadi sekadar sistem, yang indrawi akan mencairkan kembali ikatan manusia dengan dunia ini. Dalam hubungan ini saya ingin mengutip Sanento Yuliman:

Nampak dengan jelas bahwa kritik ini [kritik terhadap tata acuan produksi massal, atau Kebudayaan Massa –ND] berorientasi pada elitisme. Dasar yang dipegang berasal dari kata acuan Kebudayaan Tinggi yang berkembang selama dua abad, yaitu kepercayaan kepada otonomi perorangan. Prinsip ini pula yang memuja daya cipta, dan penolakan norma-norma kelompok dalam menghasilkan karya seni. Dan prinsip ini pula yang mengesahkan Kebudayaan Tinggi sebagai satu-satunya kebudayaan yang sah sebagai aspeknya tercantum pada karya-karya "seni tinggi".

Salah sikap yang khas dari prinsip Kebudayaan Tinggi ini adalah memandang rendah orang kebanyakan dan rakyat jelata yang kemampuan estetiknya rendah.2

2Sanento Yuliman, "Seni Rupa Sehari-hari Menentang Elitisme", pengantar pada katalog pameran Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru, Proyek 1: Pasaraya Dunia Fantasi, di Taman Ismail Marzuki, 1987. Saya kutip dari Asikin Hasan (ed.), Dua Seni Rupa (Jakarta: Yayasan Kalam, 2001), 163.Dua puluh tahun lalu–di masa puncak Orde Baru–mungkin kita bertempik sorak membaca pernyataan di atas: itulah serangan terhadap monokultur, terhadap kemapanan seni rupa dunia maupun seni rupa nasional, sekaligus terhadap gagasan kemajuan (baca: pembangunan) gaya Barat, dan akhirnya terhadap universalisme. Suara yang serupa masih kita dengar di kancah seni rupa hari ini, dan tampaknya internasionalisme baru masih menggemari populisme dan heroisme yang demikian itu.

Tetapi pada hari-hari ini–ketika kian terang bahwa hak individu digerogoti oleh apa yang bernama hak komuniter, atau ketika kuasa negara berkelindan dengan kuasa (kelompok) agama, atau ketika segerombol orang dengan dalih agama bisa memaksa sang kurator menutup sebuah karya dalam pameran internasional–saya bertanya, tidakkah serangan terhadap otonomi perorangan adalah juga sikap tak percaya akan prinsip universal hak asasi manusia? Tidakkah pemuliaan norma-norma kelompok adalah juga usaha membangkitkan komunitarianisme yang sesungguhnya bertentangan dengan cita-cita Pencerahan? Tidakkah pelecehan daya cipta adalah sikap pemulung yang pasrah (meski tinggi hati) di hadapan modernitas?

DEMIKIANLAH seni rupa atas telah mencoba membebaskan diri dari elitisme, paling tidak memperluas dirinya, kalau bukan memangsa seni rupa bawah, kebudayaan massa, dan benda-benda apa pun di dunia ini. Demikian pula saya mengerti bahwa apa yang disebut seni rupa media baru tidak lain adalah seni rupa atas juga. Yang "baru" niscayalah upaya terakhir perupa untuk menyetarakan barang seni dengan barang biasa (dan peristiwa seni dengan peristiwa biasa), namun, seperti akan segera kita lihat, upaya ini sekaligus menjauhkan, semakin menjauhkan, sengaja atau tak, seni rupa dari tangkapan publik.

Kini menciptakan barang seni–sering kali dengan merebut paksa media yang di tengah publik sudah menjadi alat sehari-hari–adalah bertanya apa itu seni tanpa habis-habisnya, sampai akhirnya ciptaan itu sendiri tetap saja berujung di ruang pameran (ruang yang terpisah dari kehidupan sehari-hari). Atau didesakkan hadir di ruang publik–ya, didesakkan dengan pelbagai cara, kalau perlu dengan meminta bantuan pranata yang menjadi sasaran kritiknya, sebab, bila tidak, barang ciptaan itu akan tenggelam di tengah pelbagai struktur nyata yang sudah melingkupi kita.



3Arthur C. Danto di tahun 1984, misalnya, berkata tentang akhir seni, yang dikatakannya kembali kelak, "...an era of astonishing creativity lasting perhaps six centuries in the West had come to an end, and... whatever art was to be made from then on would be marked by what I was prepared to call a post-historical character." Baca "Three Decades after the End of Art", dalam bukunya After the End of Art: Contemporary Art and the Pale of History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 21.Apa yang terjadi di khazanah seni rupa Barat dalam setengah abad terakhir di abad ke-20 terjadi pula di tanah air–hanya saja kita memadatkan seluruh pengalaman dan pemikiran itu. Mereka mengumumkan akhir seni,3 kita pun menyatakan hal yang sama, hanya saja dengan sedikit bertele-tele. Bila Joseph Kosuth di tahun 1969 berkata bahwa tugas seniman (artist) adalah to investigate the nature of art itself, maka seniman kita kini menyebut diri perupa: ia yang bukan hanya membongkar apa itu kodrat seni, tapi juga sekadar pembuat rupa, seakan ia tukang, insinyur, atau pemulung belaka.

Namun, seperti sudah saya katakan, tak ada yang berubah secara mendasar dalam hubungan antara seni rupa dan publiknya. Tapi, tampaknya, hal ini tak merupakan masalah yang gawat benar bagi para pembuat seni rupa kita. Seakan-akan jargon-jargon populisme, demokratisasi, dan pembongkaran seni sudah cukup mengganti kekurangan, kalau bukan ketiadaan, jaringan dan pelembagaan yang sanggup membuat khalayak lebih mendekat ke haribaan seni rupa. Di lain pihak, terbukanya medan seni internasional–katakanlah, mudahnya pengakuan berdasarkan politik identitas–telah membuat perupa mengabaikan publiknya sendiri di lingkup nasional.

Sejak awal 1990-an, internasionalisme menjadi gerakan yang bukan hanya dari pusat ke pinggiran, tetapi juga dari pinggiran ke pusat, pun dari pinggiran ke pinggiran. Dan mungkin untuk pertama kali, kurator dan pembuat seni rupa dari negara-negara bekas jajahan bahu-membahu dengan mesra dalam penteorian seni rupa. Inilah diplomasi kebudayaan yang cergas–atau kiat dalam periklanan yang biasa saja, jika kita dipenuhi prasangka–yang membuat kaum penentang modernisme tersebut memetik manfaat sebesar-besarnya dari kapitalisme mutakhir.

4Dalam Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia edisi ketiga, perupa adalah "seniman dalam seni rupa" (Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 2001), 971. Dalam Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia edisi kedua (Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1991/1997), perupa belum tercantum. Dalam film dokumenter yang diputar pada malam pembukaan Biennale Jakarta 2006 di Graha Bhakti Budaya TIM, 22 Mei 2006, tentang serangkai Biennale yang diselenggarakan Dewan Kesenian Jakarta sejak 1974, "perupa" juga dipakai untuk menyebut pelukis.5Saya pinjam (dan selewengkan) kata-kata Hans Belting, "Contemporary art manifests an awareness of history of art but no longer carries it forward" – saya kutip dari Danto, After the End of Art, 5.6Meski tak jarang juga "perupa" digunakan sebagai sinonim "senirupawan", yakinlah bahwa itu adalah senirupawan yang mempersoalkan adaan seni rupa. Rifky Effendi, misalnya, memakai "perupa" untuk menyebut Arin Dwihartanto, yang membuat lukisan. Tapi lukisan-lukisan ini "banyak terpengaruh oleh gambar komik, film-film fiksi(? –ND), maupun manga." Baca tulisannya, "Ledakan dari Ranah Kelabilan," Kompas, Minggu 21 Mei 2006.PERUPA.4 Bukan lagi senirupawan, atau peseni rupa. Perupa: sesungguhnya berarti ia yang membuat rupa, ia yang merupakan. Ia yang hendak menyeberangi seni rupa–atau sudah menyeberanginya? Ia yang mungkin, dalam kata-kata Danto, punya sifat pasca-sejarah; ia yang punya kesadaran sejarah seni, tapi tak hendak lagi mendorong sejarah itu ke depan.5 Dalam lingkup tanah air, saya kira kata "perupa" belum berumur dua dasawarsa, dan dengan begitu khazanah kita memadatkan satu abad terakhir sejarah seni rupa Barat.

Tetapi bila kita patuh mengikuti kaidah pembentukan kata dalam bahasa kita, "perupa" sesungguhnya meliputi khazanah arti yang luas dari pelukis sampai pembuat mebel, dari pematung sampai perancang pakaian. Tapi saya beranikan diri menarik simpulan: kata "perupa" kurang, bahkan tidak, dipakai untuk menyebut mereka yang bertahan dalam media seni rupa yang tradisional (seni lukis, seni patung, misalnya),6 pun untuk memanggil mereka yang berasal dari seni rupa bawah atau seni rupa "yang lain". Si perupa menempatkan diri dalam situasi ambang, entah ia hendak menciptakan kemantapan baru, atau tak mampu menguasai standar dan keterampilan lama.

Tapi baiklah, bukankah seni rupa adalah "disiplin" seni yang sudah lama merasa diri berdosa karena tak bisa mengimbangi realitas? Dan mungkin dialah yang paling rumangsa bisa menjadi kenyataan–setidaknya jika kita percaya pada pelbagai gerakan dan manifesto yang terlahir sejak Dada dan Marcel Duchamp di awal abad ke-20 sampai pameran Pasaraya Dunia Fantasi di tahun 1987 sampai pelbagai "festival" performance art di Indonesia di awal abad ke-21–sementara sastra, tari, dan sinema, misalnya, cukup puas "terpenjara" dalam media masing-masing.

Pun teater, yang bersifat multimedia sejak awal, yang lebih dekat kepada peristiwa ketimbang seni rupa, tampaknya cukup tabah menerima panggung sebagai medan perangnya; memang ada kalanya dia menghambur ke, ingin menjadi, realitas, tapi tidaklah dia sekeras kepala seni rupa.

Saya tak tahu apakah kaum perupa masih mampu membandingkan karyanya dengan karya dari disiplin seni yang lain, biarpun hanya karya dalam proses, paling tidak untuk sekadar tahu apakah ia mampu berkomunikasi dengan publik, betapapun kecilnya. Namun, sering saya bertanya-tanya, kenapakah seni rupa pertunjukan, misalnya, sering hanya dipandang sebagai pembongkaran seni rupa "tradisional", padahal boleh jadi ia hanya sekadar mirip dengan improvisasi sekadarnya, latihan pemanasan dalam teater atau tari.



7Bacalah Rizky Ahmad Zaelani, "Poetica-licentia: Seni Rupa Pasca Kesenian Romantik", dalam Catatan Kuratorial Biennale Jakarta 2006.Salah satu segi dari laku bongkar-membongkar keberadaan diri ini dalam khazanah kita adalah penolakan terhadap romantisisme, lirisisme, dan jiwa-tampak.7 Pun di sini kita bertanya, misalnya, manakah yang lebih terkontrol dalam mencipta– atau berproduksi, jika anda mau bersikap anti-romantik sepenuhnya: seorang pelukis yang bekerja dengan model di hadapannya–ataukah seorang seniman video yang begitu gandrung akan, sehingga dikuasai, teknologi? Saya hanya ingin mengatakan, bahwa sikap yang antiliris sepenuhnya hanya dapat diamalkan oleh seorang ilmuwan, yang disiplinnya senantiasa menjarakkan dia dari obyeknya, sementara "disiplin" seni hanya kuasa membuat si perupa gandrung kepada obyeknya, kepada tema yang digarapnya.

Namun, terlepas dari bagaimana kita menilai barang seni, sejarah seni rupa global sendiri telah berkembang begitu jauh: ia sudah menjadi "seni rupa tanpa sempadan":8 batasnya dengan dunia sudah rusak kalau bukan hancur sama sekali, dan batas antara pelbagai cabang yang membentuknya pun sudah rubuh. Tetapi, ternyata, sikap romantik tidak benar-benar berakhir. Dahulu, sikap itu timbul oleh gairah seniman untuk menggapai makna yang berada di seberang sana, yang tertutup oleh dunia kasatmata; kini, sikap demikian berkobar ketika sang perupa merasa tertinggal, selalu tertinggal, oleh pelbagai temuan baru di bidang teknologi dan media. Saya katakan "romantik" untuk kasus yang kedua ini, sebab si perupa hendak, tapi tak akan pernah punya landasan yang cukup untuk, menyetarai si penemu piranti pengubah dunia.

DI SEBERANG seni rupa yang dengan cara apapun mencoba menelanjangi diri (dalam amalan maupun filosofi), dunia yang kita huni adalah medan yang terlanda air bah rupa–benda, citra, informasi, atau sebutlah simulakra, spektakel, hiper-realitas, jika anda merasa hidup secara pascamodern–yang kian menggelora. Hanya kadang-kadang saja kita bertanya, di manakah yang kosong, yang sunyi, yang sunyata, sebab kita hendak juga menjadi pencipta, penyangkal, pecinta yang tak tertaklukkan oleh pasar?

8Baca Asikin Hasan, "Biennale Jakarta 2006: Setelah Seni Rupa Tanpa Sempadan", dalam Catatan Kuratorial Biennale Jakarta 2006.9Sudjoko mengambil awalan "lir-" (artinya "seperti" atau "bagaikan") dari bahasa Jawa. Misalnya lirada, untuk menyebut yang representasional. Baca tulisannya "Menuju Nirada", dalam Biranul Anas dkk (ed.), Refleksi Seni Rupa Indonesia Dulu, Kini, dan Esok (Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 2000), 29-50.Di seberang seni rupa adalah rupa seni: adalah medan di mana segala jenis rupa telah tersenikan. Ter-se-ni-kan. Semua rupa telah menjadi seni, atau lirseni,9 tanpa perlu terakui sebagai seni. Dan kata benda abstraknya: penyenian. Pe-nye-ni-an. Saya rakit istilah ini untuk menyebut cara, agaknya satu-satunya cara, yang bisa membuat warga menjadi konsumen. Warga terikat kepada kontrak politik, tapi konsumen dibebaskan daripadanya; sang warga menjalankan hak dan kewajiban, namun sang konsumen berekspresi, menyatakan diri secara "otentik". Kapitalisme mutakhir membuat si konsumen merasa tidak membeli, tapi menjalankan gaya hidup atau upacara.

Benar, semua orang adalah seniman, bukan karena Fluxus atau Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru, misalnya, telah berhasil membongkar elitisme, namun karena sirkuit produksi-konsumsi menjadikan segala ruang kita sebagai tempat pameran bagi "diri" si konsumen. Demikianlah, adalah media dan teknologi yang berhasil menyerap seni rupa, bukan sebaliknya. Inilah "estetisasi" dari seluruh bidang kehidupan. Jika kita berdiri di tengah hiruk-pikuk dunia yang telah tersenikan ini, maka ruang pameran yang dipenuhi wacana tentang pembongkaran seni tampaklah bagaikan rumah kaca belaka nun jauh di dalam sana.

10Tentang "persaingan" antara seni dan realitas, dan tentang hasrat (tak sadar) seni untuk kembali ke dirinya sendiri, saya kutip Rizky A. Zaelani: "Para seniman new media art malah mesti beradu dengan dan dalam kecanggihan model representasi piktorial ideologi kapitalisme. Terutama kini, problematika ideologi tak lagi melulu dipahami sebagai hadirnya kekuatan solid dan jelas?runtuhnya tembok Berlin membuktikan runtuhnya cara meyakini ideologi seperti itu. [...] Di kota besar, di tengah klaim kemajuan budaya yang makin kapitalistik itu, memang diperlukan perjuangan para pahlawan ‘lain’ untuk mengungkapkan problematika kekuasaan yang beroperasi makin subtil. Para ‘pahlawan’ itu mungkin tengah menegaskan berbagai problem yang tak tampak jelas. Yang jelas, justru imbalan pengakuan bagi mereka tak akan lagi tampak monumental. Kita memang mesti mengingat dan menafsir ulang lagi fungsi dan potensi seni dengan bergairah, seakan-akan tengah menemukan camera-obscura untuk pertama kalinya, di abad ke-15." Baca tulisannya, "Obscure Hero", dalam CP Biennale 2005: Urban/Culture (Jakarta: CP Foundation & Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia, 2005), 48-49.11Baca, misalnya, Kaboel Suadi yang menceritakan bagaimana Ries Mulder memperkenalkan konsep seni lukis modern Indonesia melalui pendidikan seni rupa di ITB. Antara lain, tulisnya, "Penguasaan bahasa visual bagi senirupawan, dicontohkan seperti pentingnya sastrawan menguasai bahasa sastra. Sebagai individu yang punya kebebasan total, dia hanya mencipta dari hasil pemikiran atau konsep pribadi dan merasa tidak perlu bergantung pada yang terbentuk di luar dirinya. Sementara itu, rasio terdidik yang semakin berkembang digiatkan sebagai pengendali emosi yang menggebu." Baca tulisannya, "Mazhab Bandung Terbentuk oleh Hadirnya Seni Lukis Abstrak", dalam Refleksi Seni Rupa Indonesia Dulu, Kini, dan Esok, 53.Demikianlah kita menyaksikan sebuah paradoks: bahwa rentetan bongkar-membongkar dasar-dasar keberadaan seni rupa justru kian menguatkan disiplin seni rupa itu sendiri.10 Dan hadirnya perupa, yang menggantikan senirupawan, justru menegaskan bahwa demokratisasi seni–atau bergesernya pusat pemaknaan dari pencipta ke khalayak–justru tidak terdorong oleh dirinya. (Sebab, doktrin "matinya pengarang" dengan sangat baik diamalkan oleh produsen mutakhir.) Namun, percayalah, laku penyangkalan diri ini belum akan selesai. Justru dengan lelaku inilah kaum perupa terus merawat kepentingannya sendiri. Dalam hubungan inilah kita hendak melihat bagaimana mereka menggunakan teori dan politik.

SEBAGAIMANA terlihat pada tumpukan manifesto dan kredo di abad ke-20, pada awalnya berteori dapat dilihat sebagai sejenis bakat alam dalam khazanah seni rupa. Baik untuk mencari hakikat medium dan, kemudian, meleburkan medium ke realitas, para senirupawan begitu menggemari teori, betapapun alamiah cara mereka membahasakannya. Perjalanan seni modern kita demikian juga kiranya.11

Pada tahap berikut, mengikuti apa yang terjadi di dunia akademi Prancis dan Amerika Serikat, teori menjadi payung mahabesar yang menaungi humaniora, justru ketika pelbagai disiplinnya, khususnya filsafat, mencair sejak sejumlah pemikir melancarkan kritik mahaganas terhadap humanisme dan warisan Pencerahan. Tahap ini juga menandai kekecewaan terhadap liberalisme maupun Marxisme yang (dianggap) gagal dalam menjelaskan (dan mengubah) dunia. Maka, teori, pada dasarnya adalah kritik terhadap esensialisme, terhadap representasi, terhadap utilitarianisme, dan terhadap nalar instrumental–dan secara umum, terhadap rasionalisme dan modernisme.

Jika teori mampu menghantam kuasa Barat dari dalam, dan jika teori mampu menelanjangi disiplin-disiplin tradisional humaniora di sana, maka ia pun segera siap digunakan juga oleh kaum cerdik pandai di negara-negara Dunia Ketiga–yang memang sudah lama melihat cacat-cacat dalam modernisasi sosial–sebagai alat pembebasan, apalagi teori-teori mutakhir ini datang bersamaan dengan mekarnya globalisme, yang meniadakan jarak waktu antara mereka dan sesama mereka di Dunia Pertama. Di medan seni rupa kita, air bah teori ini masuk menimpali kaum perupa dan kurator yang, sejak akhir 1970-an, berhasrat mengakhiri romantisisme dan lirisisme.

Sementara itu, politik adalah penegasan makna sosial seni. Pada masa awal seni rupa modern kita, katakanlah di masa Persagi, politik adalah kandungan isi seni–atau passion yang mampu menggantikan yang romantik, jika yang romantik ini cenderung menghasilkan kemolekan yang "tidak membumi". Ketika seni makin mengosongkan diri dari isi (sebagaimana tuntutan modernisme artistik di mana pun), politik mulai menjadi pewacanaan tentang siapa publik sebenarnya.

12Dalam bidang sastra, ada Perdebatan Sastra Kontekstual di tahun 1984, yang digerakkan oleh Ariel Heryanto dan Arief Budiman; baca Ariel Heryanto (ed.), Perdebatan Sastra Kontekstual (Jakarta: Rajawali, 1985). Pandangan mereka sejajar dengan apa yang diuarkan oleh Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru dan Sanento Yuliman. Juga, mungkin, sejajar dengan pandangan Goenawan Mohamad dalam "Sebuah Pembelaan untuk Teater Indonesia Mutakhir" (1973), yang termuat dalam Seks, Sastra, Kita (Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Harapan, 1982).13Misalnya, Griselda Pollock berkata, "Theorization is not a cerebral exercise, remote from political necessity, designed to terrorize the uninitiated. It is an inevitable component of a political practice. How do we understand the problems we have to experience as women in all the concrete diversity of that term, and how do we understand the oppression of ‘women’ historically? How do we understand the condition of Woman, sexual difference, social injustice, in ways which render it possible to resist and change?... To call such theoretical enterprises ‘methodology’ is to cut art history off again from that larger framework of social practice and cultural history..." Baca "The Politics of Theory: Generations and Geographies in Feminist Theory and the Histories of Art Histories" dalam bungarampai yang disuntingnya, Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts: Feminist Readings (London & New York: Routledge, 1996), 13-14.Ketika makin disadari bahwa modernisme artistik berpisah dari modernisasi sosial, politik seni rupa menjadi kesadaran bahwa seni rupa itu beragam, paling tidak terbagi menjadi seni rupa atas dan seni rupa bawah, yang masing-masing punya khalayaknya sendiri. Ini adalah telaah kontekstual, yang marak dalam khazanah kesenian kita pada 1980-an. Telaah ini pada dasarnya menyerang universalisme: tidak ada karya seni yang bersifat universal: seni selalu terikat kepada lingkungan sosial tertentu; sesungguhnya universalisme hanyalah kedok bagi ideologi dominan.12 Pada tahap terakhir, yaitu apa yang masih terjadi sampai hari-hari ini, politik adalah upaya meleburkan batas hirarki itu, batas antar-disiplin, juga batas antara seni dan kenyataan. Demikianlah pada tahap terakhir ini teori dan politik saling berkelindan.13

Perkelindanan ini makin erat lagi manakala medan internasional mengambil alih "subversi terhadap kuasa-dan-pengetahuan Barat" sebagai alat untuk menegaskan kemampuan negeri-negeri "pascakolonial" sebagai pemain-pemain baru di pentas dunia. Anda tak dapat hadir ke medan dunia tanpa politik identitas dan pewacanaan. Teori tidak perlu lagi menjadi abstraksi dari pelbagai gejala di bumi sendiri, melainkan rumus untuk memoles-moles kehadiran. Teori bukan lagi hasil kaji, melainkan pembatas kaji. Atau, teori adalah sebarang kaji, dengan simpulan yang sudah dipatok sebelumnya.

PLURALISME adalah paham dominan dalam seni rupa hari ini. Dari satu sisi, ini adalah "kemenangan teori" atas intuisi, jiwa tampak, dan penciptaan romantik. Ia menjadi paham yang berkuasa, yang dijalankan oleh hampir semua pusat baru dalam penilaian seni rupa. Pelaksanaan teori secara lajak, overtheorizing, adalah penegasan politik identitas. Bila dikatakan bahwa modernisme sudah mati, maka sesungguhnya modernisme menjadi paham yang terkucil dalam pertarungan dan pertukaran gagasan sedunia.



14Dengan ini tiadalah saya bermaksud mengatakan bahwa ada yang obyektif tentang, atau di dalam, sebuah karya seni. Seorang formalis atau pembaca dekat mana pun pada akhirnya akan sampai pada pilihan dan simpulan masing-masing, namun ia akan tetap bertolak dari unsur dalaman sebuah karya. Demikianlah, misalnya, Theodor Adorno berpihak pada ekspresionisme, teater absurd, dan musik atonal, sementara Walter Benjamin memilih surrealisme, teater epik, dan kebudayaan massa, meski keduanya sama-sama tumbuh dalam Marxisme baru. Kita tahu, "selera" dua orang sahabat dan musuh polemis ini tak terdamaikan. Meski keduanya melakukan "metode" pembacaan yang serupa, yang dalam kata-kata Adorno, "...Interpretation of the unintentional through juxtaposition of the analytically isolated elements and illumination of the real by the power of such interpretation is the program of every authentically materialist knowledge... For the mind is indeed not capable of producing or grasping the totality of the real, but it may be possible to penetrate the detail, to explode in miniature the mass of merely existing reality." Baca Eugene Lunn, Marxism and Modernism: An Historical Study of Lukacs, Brecht, Benjamin, and Adorno (London: Verso, 1985), khususnya 200.15Terhadap seni lukis, misalnya, Sanento tak jarang bersikap tajam-mengejek. Tentang Semsar Siahaan (pameran di TIM, Januari 1988), misalnya, ia mempersoalkan kelemahannya "dalam tarikan garis, dalam pencitraan obyek-obyek dalam ruang, bahkan dalam menggambar rinci"; tentang Nashar (pameran di TIM, Juni-Juli 1990), ia berbicara tentang "citra yang rancu", "formula ‘rasa hidup’ atau ‘kehidupan rasa’" yang "tidak pula memberi kita kunci untuk memasuki dan memahami lukisan-lukisan Nashar." Baca tulisannya, "Pusaran Semsar" dan "Menafsir Nashar", dalam Dua Seni Rupa, 244-245 & 303-305. Terhadap "seni media baru", sebagaimana terhadap Gerakan Seni Rupa Baru, kritikus ini kerap melakukan pembelaan berlebihan.Di tanah air, seni rupa kita larut dalam perayaan pluralisme. Semua kritikus dan kurator kita, hampir tanpa kecuali, adalah pemeluk teguh pluralisme. Formalisme14–yang bagi saya tiada lain daripada pembacaan dekat, close reading, yaitu melihat karya seni sebagai teks yang bernilai dalam dirinya sendiri, sebelum ia diperjalinkan dengan teks-teks lain di luarnya–hampir-hampir tidak pernah dilaksanakan sama sekali. (Kecuali mungkin oleh Sanento Yuliman dalam beberapa kesempatan15–tapi bagi saya, kritikus ini tak pernah mencampur-adukkan kritik seni dengan sosiologi seni, atau pembacaan dekat dengan pembacaan jauh. Kini, agaknya, kaum pluralis kita tak tahu lagi bagaimana memisahkan dua cara kajian itu.) Ya, pluralisme bahkan tanpa tandingan sama sekali.

Perlahan tapi pasti, kaum pluralis ini juga menguasai akademi-akademi seni rupa. Berbeda dari guru-guru mereka yang modernis dan formalis, mereka kini membiarkan anak-anak didik mereka berbuat apa saja, asal dengan "dalih teoritis" yang cukup. Saya tidak mengatakan bahwa para guru eksentrik ini–sebagian di antara mereka adalah kaum kurator dan perupa yang giat–tak mengajarkan keterampilan dan pengetahuan seni, tapi jelaslah, mereka sudah menggeser jauh materi ajar ke ranah teori–atau ke wawasan lingkungan rupa. Yang mereka ajarkan dapatlah disebut "seni konseptual"–atau pembacaan jauh.

16Baca, misalnya, tulisan saya "Internasionalisme Baru, Kelisanan Baru", Catatan Akhir Tahun Dunia dan Kita, Kompas, 20 Desember 2003.17Ini adalah istilah Jonathan Arac dalam "Anglo-Globalism?" dalam New Left Review 16, Juli-Agustus 2002. Dalam ranah kajian sastra, Arac mengkhawatirkan "the unavowed imperialism of English; the diminishment of language-based criticism in favour of a monolingual master scheme." Setara dengan pendapat ini, saya juga telah mengatakan bahwa kaum cerdik pandai di kalangan seni rupa kita juga (hanya) membaca apa yang dianggap penting oleh dunia akademi Amerika Serikat.Berkali-kali saya katakan bahwa pluralisme adalah apa yang dikehendaki pasar global.16 Industri budaya "menghormati" pelbagai khazanah kebudayaan lokal justru untuk menyerap sumber daya yang terkandung di situ. Kapitalisme sedunia sudah jenuh menjual barang dan citraan yang hanya berasal dari Dunia Pertama. Lebih radikal lagi, kapitalisme mutakhir menjalankan wawasan budaya–yakni apa yang sudah saya paparkan di atas: menebarkan rupa seni dan spektakel–dan, pada giliran berikutnya, mendorong kritik budaya dari negeri-negeri sasaran untuk meramahkan raut ekonomi-politiknya.

Tentu, globalisme bukan hanya menyebarkan gaya hidup, tapi juga, seperti sudah saya katakan sebelumnya, teori-teori mutakhir. Maka untuk pertama kalinya, kaum intelektual kita, bersama dengan sesamanya dari negara-negara bekas jajahan, fasih mengucapkan kosakata yang kemarin atau sejam lalu baru diucapkan oleh kaum intelektual di Prancis atau Amerika Serikat–jargon-jargon yang menyangkut politik identitas, pluralisme, dan dekonstruksi. Bila bahasa Inggris adalah lingua franca khazanah seni rupa sedunia, maka globalisme yang bekerja sesungguhnya adalah Anglo-globalisme.17 Apa yang dibaca bukanlah anti-kanon humaniora, melainkan kanon baru, yang didesakkan oleh dunia akademi Amerika Serikat. Hampir tiada bacaan alternatif dari luar Dunia Pertama yang melekat di hati sanubari para cendekiawan seni rupa kita.

Maka, sebenarnya apakah yang cukup berbeda di antara suara-suara tentang pluralisme yang muncul dari khazanah seni rupa di negara-negara bekas jajahan kecuali tempelan dari "kekayaan lokal" masing-masing? Saya pun ragu akan adanya perbedaan mendasar di antara kaum kritikus pluralis kita dalam membangun "paradigma" masing-masing. Tanpa lawan tangguh dari pihak formalisme (atau modernisme), pun tanpa persaingan mazhab di dunia akademi kita, kaum pluralis ini cenderung saling menyelaraskan diri satu sama lain. Yang kita lihat adalah perbedaan selera, atau sekadar gradasi pendekatan. Pluralisme, di tanah air kita, adalah suara-suara yang hampir seragam, kalau bukan seragam sama sekali, tentang keanekaragaman.

SEBUAH karya seni lahir untuk melawan seluruh dunia. Bila saya menikmatinya, berarti saya sedang melakukan subversi terhadap semua gambaran dunia yang berada dalam diri saya. Sebelum ia hadir ke hadapan saya, urusan saya dengan dunia ini tampaknya sudah selesai melalui pelbagai disiplin yang sudah mampu membahagiakan saya. Tapi ia lahir juga, dan saya kembali percaya bahwa dunia ini belum selesai.

18Baca tulisan saya "Tempurung" dan "Arus Kiri", Lembar Sastra, Koran Tempo edisi Minggu, 8 & 15 Februari 2004. Antara lain, saya menulis, "Bila kajian kontekstual menjadi kedok bagi ketidakmampuan menyingkap tata makna dalam teks, bila prinsip pluralisme sekadar dalih buat menutupi bangkrutnya ‘budaya-budaya pinggiran’, dan bila pascamodernisme menjadi pengabsah bagi mediokritas maupun sikap konservatif baru, hanya pembacaan dekatlah yang bisa menyelamatkan studi budaya tanpa heroisme yang tak perlu dan metode yang semu-politis belaka."19Dalam "Pembacaan Dekat atau Jauh: Melintasi Sastra dan Seni Rupa", Kalam 22, 2005, saya menulis bahwa untuk menyajikan sebuah tafsir politis, seorang pengkaji harus mampu melakukan pembacaan dekat terlebih dulu. Saya katakan hal ini manakala terlalu banyak, kalau bukan semua, pengkaji sastra kita tak mampu membaca– menilai–teks tanpa tertaklukkan lebih dulu oleh keterangan apa pun tentang teks dan penulis, dan oleh teori sastra.Sebuah karya seni tidaklah harus meleburkan dirinya ke realitas, atau ke ranah-ranah di luar dirinya, untuk sampai ke daerah tangkapan saya. Sebuah puisi atau sebuah lukisan yang cemerlang sudah cukup untuk membangunkan saya dari lamunan atau mimpi tentang apa yang nyata, apa yang dianggap nyata oleh sang mayoritas. Dan apa yang membangunkan saya adalah jalinan kokoh antar-anasir dalam karya itu sendiri. Itulah yang membuatnya berbeda dan selalu saja berbeda di tengah lautan karya di dunia ini. Maka, buat saya, pembacaan dekat bisa malih menjadi pembacaan radikal, pembacaan politis, sementara pembacaan jauh sekadar pembacaan semu-politis.18

Mungkin anda berkata, apa yang saya anggap cemerlang, bahkan apa yang saya anggap seni, itu didasari prasangka bawah sadar yang terkembang oleh kelas sosial saya, pendidikan saya, kepentingan politik saya, dan lingkungan pergaulan saya. Baiklah. Dengan sederhana saya jawab, saya mampu melakukan analisis kelas maupun hermeneutika kecurigaan karena saya percaya kepada warisan Pencerahan– dan saya lakukan itu semua untuk mencari kedaulatan individu, menegakkan cita-cita sosial, menjunjung bahasa, mencari santapan sehat, maupun membuktikan kecemerlangan karya seni. Tentu saja saya bisa keliru, tapi dengan jalan inilah justru kebenaran dan segenap nilai bersama teruji.

Dengan kata lain, saya harus menilai–dan menilai adalah membaca dekat-dekat, sedekat mungkin. Sudah terpisah si karya dari penciptanya, dari ranah yang merangsang kelahirannya, dari kuasa yang hendak melembagakannya.19 Pembacaan dekat adalah pertemuan dua individu–si pembaca dan si karya–yang membawa warisan masing-masing, tetapi si pembaca hendak menyangkal beban warisan itu, untuk menegaskan kedaulatan masing-masing. Maka pembacaan dekat juga berarti meletakkan status seni dalam tanda kutip: apabila saya, misalnya, menemukan lebih banyak klise ketimbang subversi yang diberikan si karya, maka ia hanya menjadi setitik debu dalam lautan citra dan benda di dunia ini.

Itulah sebabnya, bagi saya, sebuah instalasi tidak selalu lebih konkret daripada sebuah lukisan, dan sebuah karya seni video tak senantiasa lebih mampu menghadirkan kenyataan ketimbang sebuah patung. Pluralisme adalah pengakuan akan adanya keragaman jenis yang punya hak hidup masing-masing. Tetapi, buat saya, bukan berarti pelbagai jenis itu tak terbandingkan satu sama lain. Sebab bukankah kita hidup di dunia dengan nalar dan hak asasi yang sama? Dan bukankah warisan budaya mesti memperkuat nalar itu–dan bukan justru memperlemahnya?

PADA akhirnya pluralisme adalah sebuah proyek yang harus memerkarakan dirinya sendiri. Ia tidak bisa membayangkan sang adikuasa terus-menerus berada di hadapannya atau di sekitarnya.

Dalam khazanah seni rupa kita, seperti sudah saya katakan, pluralisme kini menjadi paham yang dominan. Tidak ada pesaing yang sepadan dengannya, sehingga ia tak kuasa memperbaharui diri. Apalagi di aras dunia, pluralisme juga merajalela.

20Dalam kesempatan ini saya kutip Hou Hanru, seorang kurator asal Cina Daratan: "The whole concept of creativity has become broken down into a form of network, and the change in structural relationships has had a direct effect on the content. Nowadays, the concept of knowledge is no longer based on the sustenance of a certain language or matter. On the contrary, ‘sustenance’ itself has become unusually complicated... The arrival of networking has directly challenged inherent concepts of our existence. If you master networking, does that mean that you have then mastered power?" Baca wawancaranya dengan Yu Hsiao-Hwei, "Interview with Hou Hanru: In the Guise of an Introduction" dalam kumpulan tulisannya On the Mid-Ground yang disunting oleh si pewawancara (Hongkong: Timezone 8, 2002), 11-20..Tetapi, dalam kelisanan kedua–atau dalam masyarakat spektakel, jika kita masih juga suka mengutip–pluralisme telah menumpulkan kemampuan para perupa dan kurator, juga publik, dalam melakukan pembacaan dekat. Seakan tidak ada karya yang tidak diselimuti politik–yakni politik identitas–sehingga yang muncul bukanlah pembacaan teks (karya), melainkan penyingkapan konteks.20 Seakan karya tidak mampu menampakkan diri tanpa teori atau pewacanaan.

Ternyata, teori tidaklah muncul dalam lelakunya yang sejati–yakni sebagai abstraksi terhadap apa-apa yang muncul dari kenyataan rupa di tanah sendiri–namun penyerahan kepada apa yang didesakkan oleh Anglo-globalisme. Pewacanaan adalah penggunaan resep untuk menghadir-hadirkan karya; bila si karya bisa ikut dalam karnaval internasional, maka cocoklah resep itu; bila tak cocok, setidaknya kita sudah ikut dalam irama permainan, dan sebentar lagi kita akan membuat pusat penilaian internasional sendiri di tanah air, paling kurang di negeri jiran.

Tentu saja perlawanan terhadap modernisme berhasil. Namun yang benar adalah: dalam khazanah kita, formalisme tak pernah berkembang benar, apalagi di hari-hari ini. Para kritikus kita dalam dua dasawarsa terakhir ini hampir tak tertarik kepada aspek dalaman, katakanlah aspek formal, karya seni, sebab mereka percaya, seperti Foucault, bahwa kuasa ada di mana-mana. Mengamalkan formalisme, bagi mereka, kiranya adalah menyerahkan diri ke modernisme tinggi. Pada saat yang sama, auslah kemampuan mereka dalam mencandra karya dan menyatakannya dalam bahasa.

Dan pelan-pelan sikap tajam akan formalisme malih menjadi sikap merendahkan, kalau bukan melecehkan, seni lukis dan seni patung–konon seni yang berpusat pada pencipta, melestarikan perburuan makna ke sebalik realitas, dan mengalami komodifikasi habis-habisan. Penggesernya, kalau bukan penggantinya, adalah seni rupa media baru–konon seni yang tak berjarak dengan realitas, yang antiliris. Ternyata inilah "antidisiplin" yang hanya memberontaki seni rupa konvensional, tapi alpa membandingkan diri dengan seni lain yang lebih revolusioner (dan memukau) ketimbang dirinya.

21Pluralisme/kontekstualisme sesungguhnya tak (harus) bertentangan dengan universalisme, sebagaimana diamalkan oleh mereka yang di tanah air untuk sementara ini disebut atau menyebut diri kaum muslim liberal. Bagi mereka, agama, dalam hal ini Islam, adalah ajaran yang merawat kesederajatan manusia sedunia. Namun, Islam harus diterjemahkan ke konteks budaya setempat, sebab, jika tidak, ia sekadar cetusan dari kultur Arab, atau terpenjara oleh politik keagamaan tertentu. Mereka mampu menemukan kebenaran Islam dalam pelbagai agama dan filsafat mana pun. Bagi mereka, kontekstualisme adalah metode, dan universalisme adalah tujuan. Saya tulis perihal ini dalam "Polemik Budaya untuk Islam Liberal", Indo Pos, Minggu, 30 April 2006.Baiklah, pluralisme telah memperluas seni rupa atas dan meleburkan seni rupa nasional ke medan internasional. Tapi bila kian banyak pihak yang merayakan pluralisme sebagai lawan dari universalisme, maka mendekatlah mereka ke arah fundamentalisme.21 Bila anda menganggap karya (atau teks) sekadar bagian dari konteks, maka anda mengakui bahwa setiap konteks, setiap lingkungan budaya punya ukurannya sendiri–yang tak bisa saling membandingkan dan menilai. Inilah esensialisme baru, juga benih fundamentalisme. Maka, sebentar lagi, anda dengan gampang menyangkal kedaulatan individu dan kesetaraan umat manusia sedunia.

Di titik inilah saya ingin memandang pluralisme sebagai sebuah proyek. Terhadap kekuatan yang serba menyeragamkan, yang memaksakan semacam kebenaran, kita memperjuangkan keberagaman. Terhadap kelompok yang, karena merasa diri mayoritas, mendesakkan hukum langit sebagai undang-undang, kita melawan dengan pluralisme. Sebab kita percaya kepada konstitusi, kepada cita-cita negara bangsa, dan akhirnya kepada prinsip universal hak asasi manusia.

Masihkah di hari-hari ini kaum perupa dan kurator gemar mengguncangkan "kepercayaan kepada otonomi perorangan" hanya untuk merongrong "seni rupa atas"? Masihkah mereka menyerang modernisme ketika segala segi kehidupan kita diliputi takhayul, kelisanan, dan irasionalitas? Mestinya kita beroleh jawaban "tidak", tetapi saya khawatir mereka tetap saja berlaku romantik, bahkan lebih romantik daripada pendahulu mereka, sebagaimana tampak pada sikap lajak mereka terhadap teori, terhadap globalisme, terhadap media baru.

Berdiri di tengah riuh rendah seni rupa Indonesia hari ini adalah mencoba sadar bahwa khazanah ini sedang berusaha melebur diri ke dalam kenyataan. Ya, hanya berusaha, tapi tidak juga berhasil. Seakan kita mengenali bukan lagi barang seni rupa, tetapi sekadar barang yang naik ke singgasana rupa oleh semacam teori dan politik. Tapi maafkan saya bila hari ini saya berkata: hanya jika sang perupa menjadi senirupawan, dan sang kurator-kritikus kembali melakukan pembacaan dekat, kita akan memiliki lagi seni rupa yang mampu bukan hanya mengubah gambaran tentang dunia, tapi juga (seperti sains dan bidang apa saja yang mulai dengan kaji dan kerja kecil di laboratorium, kebun tersembunyi, atau menara gading) menggerakkan dunia.

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Telecommunications software and hardware

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

Advanced Communications & Maintenance, Inc. (ACM) launched a telecomunication solution with minimal downtime and high quality service. The services inlude systems installation, maintenance contracts, 24 hour on site repair, relocation services, secure remote systems administration and onsite custom training programs.

ACM’s certified technicians utilize the latest telecommunications software and hardware to ensure your phone system is up and running on time and within budget. ACM has solutions designed for the public sector and education, as well as call centers and video conferencing.

ACM provides maintenance contracts for ACM products as well as legacy systems previously installed. The Maintenance contracts will provide you 24x7 coverage; guaranteed response times, and dedicated support teams.

ACM supports phone systems and voice mail systems from leading manufactures like NEC, Nortel, Lucent/Avaya, Toshiba and Comdial. You can count on ACM for all your voice and data cabling needs.

You can ask ACM engineers to design and implement your voice or data network cabling whether it’s CAT3/5e/6, Coaxial, fiber optic, or even 802.11a/b wireless. They only use the best cabling equipment such as Ortronics, Hubbel, and Panduit. Each job is finished with a customized and efficient racking system for ease of maintenance and growth. Our cabling services can even extend to your home. ACM offers both commercial and residential cabling services.

Let see The NEAX® 2000 IPS. This is a full-featured IP-based communications system. It provides pure voice-over-IP (VoIP) peer-to-peer connections across corporate local and wide area networks (LAN/WAN) and also supports time division switching (TDM). For more information visit voip network

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The true Sufi, a poem by Rumi

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

The True Sufi

What makes the Sufi? Purity of heart;
Not the patched mantle and the lust perverse
Of those vile earth-bound men who steal his name.
He in all dregs discerns the essence pure:
In hardship ease, in tribulation joy.
The phantom sentries, who with batons drawn
Guard Beauty's place-gate and curtained bower,
Give way before him, unafraid he passes,
And showing the King's arrow, enters in.

R. A. Nicholson

'Persian Poems', an Anthology of verse translations
edited by A.J.Arberry, Everyman's Library, 1972


More poems by Jalalluddin Rumi were collected at http://www.armory.com/~thrace/sufi/poems.html

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Poem by Abdul Hadi WM

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

Abdul Hadi Wiji Muntahari also known as Abdul Hadi WM is one of Indonesian Poet which famous for his poem conceptions contain sufistic nuance, which inspired from moslem' poet Faridduddin Attar, announced his poem at Berita Buana cultural daily in the decade of 1980s has influenced Indonesian religious poem. He has wrote a lot of poems and translated some work from middle east author, just mention one of them "al-Matsnawi al-Maknawi" one of masterpiece from Jalāl-ad-Dīn Rūmī, a 13th century Persian poet, Islamic jurist, and theologian. To know more about Abdul Hadi WM, let enjoy his following poems:


Barat dan Timur

Barat dan Timur adalah guruku Muslim, Hindu, Kristen, Buddha, Pengikut Zen dan Tao Semua adalah guruku Kupelajari dari semua orang saleh dan pemberani Rahasia cinta, rahasia bara menjadi api menyala Dan tikar sembahyang sebagai pelana menuju arasy-Nya Ya, semua adalah guruku Ibrahim, Musa, Daud, Lao Tze Buddha, Zarathustra, Socrates, Isa Almasih Serta Muhammad Rasulullah Tapi hanya di masjid aku berkhidmat Walau jejak-Nya Kujumpai di mana-mana.

Pembawa Matahari
Sajak-sajak karya Abdul Hadi WM (1981-1992)

Republika Online edisi : 05 Dec 1999


Dalam Pasang

Dan pasang apalagikah yang akan mengenyahkan kita, kegaduhan apa lagi? Sekarat dan terbakar sudah kita oleh tahun-tahun penuh pertikaian, ketakutan dan perang saudara Terpelanting dari kebuntuan yang satu ke kebuntuan lainnya

Tapi tetap saja kita membisu atau berserakan Menunggu ketakpastian

Telah mereka hancurkan rumah harapan kita Telah mereka campakkan jendela keluh dan ratap kita Hingga tak ada yang mesti kuceritakan padamu lagi tentang laut itu di sana, yang naik dan menarik ketenteraman ke tepi

Kecuali serpih matahari dalam genggam kesia-siaan ini yang bisa menghanguskan kota ini lagi - Raja-raja dan kediaman mereka yang bertangan besi Kecuali segala bual dan pidato kumal yang berapi-api Antara kepedihan bila kesengsaraan dan lapar tak tertahankan lagi

Kita adalah penduduk negeri yang penuh kesempatan dan mimpi Tapi tak pernah lagi punya kesempatan dan mimpi

Kita adalah penduduk negeri yang penuh pemimpin Tapi tak seorang pun kita temukan dapat memimpin Kita....


Pembawa Matahari
Sajak-sajak karya Abdul Hadi WM (1981-1992)

Republika Online edisi : 05 Dec 1999


Ketika Masih Bocah

Ketika masih bocah, rumahku di tepi laut Bila pagi pulang dari perjalanan jauhnya Menghalau malam dan bayang-bayangnya, setiap kali Kulihat matahari menghamburkan sinarnya Seraya menertawakan gelombang Yang hilir mudik di antara kekosongan

Sebab itu aku selalu riang Bermendung atau berawan, udara tetap terang Setiap butir pasir buku pelajaran bagiku Kusaksikan semesta di dalam Dan keluasan mendekapku seperti seorang ibu

Batang kayu untuk perahu masih lembut tapi kuat Kuhadapkan senantiasa jendelaku ke wajah kebebasan Aku tak tahu mengapa aku tak takut pada bahaya Duri dan kepedihan kukenal Melalui kakiku sendiri yang telanjang

Arus begitu akrab denganku Selalu ada tempat bernaung jika udara panas Dan angin bertiup kencang Tak banyak yang mesti dicemaskan Oleh hati yang selalu terjaga Pulau begitu luas dan jalan lebar Seperti kepercayaan Dan kukenal tangan pengasih Tuhan Seperti kukenal getaran yang bangkit Di hatiku sendiri

Pembawa Matahari
Sajak-sajak karya Abdul Hadi WM (1981-1992)

Republika Online edisi : 05 Dec 1999


:: those poems previously collected and published at http://www.geocities.com/paris/parc/2713/ahwm.html

Abdul Hadi WM at PDAT (Tempo Decumentation Resource)



ABDUL HADI WIDJI MUTHARI (Abdul Hadi W.M.)


''Saya lebih senang disebut sebagai penyair saja,'' ucap Abdul Hadi Widji Muthari. Selebihnya, seperti jabatan redaktur kebudayaan harian Berita Buana, dan anggota Dewan Pimpinan Harian Dewan Kesenian Jakarta, dapatlah dianggap sebagai tambahan.
Puisi adalah getar nadinya. ''Saya menyukai puisi sejak saya jatuh cinta,'' kata Hadi. Yakni ketika di SMP. Kemudian, ia merasa dimatangkan oleh karya-karya Amir Hamzah, Chairil Anwar, serta dorongan orangtua, kawan, dan guru.
Sebagaimana anak Madura lainnya, Hadi adalah ''Anak Laut, Anak Angin'', seperti bunyi judul kumpulan puisinya. Padahal, darah Maduranya hanya sebagian. Selebihnya Cina dan Jawa. Namun, bakat seni memang mengalir deras dalam dirinya, mewarisi keluarga yang suka karya sastra, ayah yang gemar melukis, dan kakek yang senang bersenandung Mocopatan, dan membaca sastra Jawa.
Masa kecilnya sudah dijejali dengan bacaan berat. Semula bercita-cita menjadi pemikir. Artinya, ''Yah, semacam filosof yang menerbitkan ide-ide baru.'' Plato, Socrates, Imam Ghazali, R. Tagore, dan Iqbal, dikenalnya betul, paling tidak demikianlah perasaannya. Dan untuk memenuhi keinginan batinnya, ia meninggalkan Fakultas Sastra, dan pindah ke Fakultas Filsafat.
Sekitar 1970-an, nama Abdul Hadi mencuat. Para pengamat menilai Hadi sebagai pencipta puisi yang bersuasana hati. Hadi memang menulis tentang kesepian, kematian, dan waktu. Makin lama, warna mistis Islamnya makin menonjol, dan kadang malah menyatu dengan mistis Jawa. Kumpulan puisi Meditasi yang memenangkan hadiah buku puisi DKJ terbaik 1978, dan buku Hamzah Fansuri, Penyair Sufi Aceh, mewakili kecenderungan religiusnya.
Orang sering membandingkan Abdul Hadi dengan Taufiq Ismail, yang juga berpuisi religius. Hadi membantahnya. ''Dengan tulisan, saya mengajak orang lain untuk mengalami pengalaman religius yang saya rasakan. Sedang Taufiq hanya menekankan sifat moralistisnya,'' katanya.
Hingga kini sudah enam kumpulan puisi yang diterbitkannya. Empat buku lainnya bukan puisi. Dengan istrinya, Tedjawati, yang menjadi pelukis, Hadi sering terlibat diskusi soal seni. Ia juga menyukai karya Bach, Beethoven, dan The Beatles.

UPDATE :

Abdul Hadi WM menerima tawaran dari University Sains Malaysia yang memberinya
kesempatan menjadi "ahli cipta" di Pusat Pengajian Ilmu Kemanusiaan, University Sains Malaysia, tahun 1992. Posisinya sebagai "ahli cipta" di perguruan tinggi yang berlokasi di Penang, Malaysia itu membuka peluang mengikuti program doktoral di perguruan tinggi itu dalam bidang sastra. Ia menyusun tesis Estetika Puisi Hamzah Fanzuri (Kajian tentang Hamzah Fanzuri). Sampai saat ini, Abdul Hadi sering menjadi pembicara seminar atau baca puisi.

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Book Review: "Sastra Peranakan Tinghoa Indonesia"

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

Title: Sastra Peranakan Tinghoa Indonesia
Author: Leo Suryadinata

Karya pengarang sastra peranakan Tionghoa Indonesia sangat besar jumlahnya, diantaranya banyak yang bermutu tinggi. Karya yang bermutu itu antara lain unggul dalam cerita yang mengungkap sisi sejarah kehidupan, menyanjikan cerita masa lalu dengan memunculkan misteri kehidupan, dan mampu menampilkan karakter tokoh dengan bayang-bayang jabatan yang bernuansa alam perasaan.

Buku Sastra Peranakan Tionghoa Indonesia ini merupakan dokumentasi dengan ringkasan dan ulasan karya sastra peranakan, seperti karya Lie Kim Hok, Gouw Peng Liang, Thio Tjin Boen, Kwee Tek Hoay, Im Yang Tjoe (Tan Hong Boen), Soe Lie Pit, Liem Khing Hoo (Romano), Oei Kim Tiang, Kho Ping Hoo, dan Gan Kok Liang. Karya mereka diringkas dan diulas oleh pakar sastra peranakan, seperti Jakob Sumardjo, Claudine Salmon, Monique Zaini-Lajoubert, Myra Sidharta, dan Leo Suryadinata.

Manfaat praktis buku ini sangat besar bagi pembaca Indonesia, terutama generasi muda yang belum pernah membaca karya pengarang sastra peranakan. Dosen dan mahasiswa pada jurusan Sastra Cina di Fakultas Sastra pun sudah layak dan sepantasnya memperoleh manfaat akademis dari buku ini. Sebuah buku penting yang mencerminkan perjuangan kongkrit untuk lebih memahami satu wajah sastra peranakan Tionghoa Indonesia.

More information about this book visit http://www.grasindo.co.id

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Claudine Salmon Menguak Sejarah Indonesia-Tionghoa

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

Oleh Maria Hartiningsih & Ninuk M Pambudy
Published at Kompas printed edition
(http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0711/04/persona/3971408.htm)

Baca dan pahami sejarah. Itu pesan Claudine Salmon (69), peneliti terkemuka kajian kesusastraan Melayu-Tionghoa. Melalui karya-karyanya, ia menolak warisan kolonial yang secara sepihak mendefinisikan "orang asing" dan "orang pribumi" menempelkan stigma terhadap orang Tionghoa dan melanggengkan diskriminasi.

Kalau dilihat dari luar, yang disebut sebagai orang Tionghoa di sini artinya orang Indonesia-Tionghoa, sebab mereka adalah warga negara Indonesia," ujar Claudine. "Orang Tiongkok tidak menganggap orang Tionghoa-Indonesia bagian dari mereka."

Di Indonesia, lanjut Claudine, kalau ada istilah suku-suku, orang Tionghoa dianggap sebagai suku asing. Tetapi, siapa yang "asing", siapa yang "pribumi", sebenarnya tidak terpisah seperti minyak dengan air….

Claudine Salmon adalah peneliti asal Perancis yang mendedikasikan hampir seluruh kariernya untuk meneliti kebudayaan Tionghoa dan juga kebudayaan Tionghoa di Indonesia. Ia berbahasa Indonesia dengan baik dan sampai saat ini masih terus melakukan perjalanan keliling Indonesia.

Sembilan tahun terakhir perjalanan itu ia lakukan sendiri, setelah suaminya, Denys Lombard, peneliti penting sejarah kebudayaan Indonesia, berpulang tahun 1998. Duo peneliti itu menghasilkan beragam karya ilmiah bersama yang sangat bernilai, misalnya tentang klenteng-klenteng di Jakarta, sastra Melayu-Tionghoa, maupun hubungan
Islam-Tionghoa yang banyak diwarnai kontroversi.

Claudine Salmon dengan sabar, tekun, dan berani menunjukkan bukti-bukti otentik yang memperlihatkan keikutsertaan aktif dan integrasi orang Tionghoa ke dalam masyarakat Indonesia.

Sumbangsih terbesar Claudine Salmon pada nation-building Indonesia adalah dalam bidang sastra dan bahasa Melayu-Tionghoa. Ia mampu membuktikan secara ilmiah melalui 300-an karyanya bahwa kesusastraan "Melayu-Cina" sebenarnya merupakan bagian tak terpisahkan dari kesusastraan Indonesia.

Dalam bukunya, Literature in Malay by the Chinese of Indonesia, a Provisional Annotated Bibliography (1981), ia berhasil mengumpulkan 806 penulis dengan 3.005 karya. Karya-karya itulah yang menghidupkan kesadaran bahwa golongan Tionghoa bukan sekadar economic animal seperti yang dicitrakan selama ini dengan membatasi gerak orang Tionghoa di bidang-bidang di luar ekonomi.

Itulah antara lain pertimbangan lima dewan juri yang dipimpin Dr Syafi'i Maarif untuk memberikan Nabil Award I kepada Claudine Salmon. Penghargaan Nabil diberikan kepada mereka yang dinilai berjasa dalam proses nation-building Indonesia.

"Sebenarnya sejumlah besar orang lain juga harus diberi penghargaan karena tanpa mereka saya tak bisa menulis semua itu," begitu komentar Claudine.

Claudine ditemui suatu siang, Senin 22 Oktober, tiga hari sebelum acara resmi penerimaan penghargaan itu.


Menepiskan prasangka


Ketika tiba di Indonesia bulan Desember 1966, situasi di Indonesia masih sangat panas. Di berbagai daerah masih terjadi berbagai peristiwa kekejian pasca-G-30S. Pada masa itu masyarakat Tionghoa-Indonesia mengalami berbagai pembatasan.

Mereka diimbau untuk mengganti nama dan akses pada apa pun yang memuat karakter huruf China ditutup. Klenteng-klenteng harus membatasi kegiatan mereka dalam halaman gedung. Bersama Denys, Claudine mulai mengumpulkan berbagai data mengenai orang Tionghoa di Indonesia.

"Biasanya pengurus klenteng suka bantu memberi tahu tentang riwayat klenteng, juga tentang dirinya," ujar Claudine yang mengatakan tak mendapat kesulitan pergi ke klenteng-klenteng di Jakarta saat itu.

Meski menolak berkomentar ketika pembicaraan memasuki wilayah politik, bukan berarti ia tidak tahu apa yang terjadi. Dalam perjalanan ke China, ia bertemu warga Tionghoa-Indonesia yang terpaksa kembali ke "tempat asal" yang tidak mereka kenal.

"Beberapa di antara mereka perempuan Jawa yang menikah dengan orang keturunan Tionghoa. Mereka tak paham bahasa Tiongkok, hidup di kampung dan bicara dengan bahasa Jawa dan Indonesia."

Mereka ditempatkan di daerah selatan yang dianggap "lebih rendah" kelasnya dibandingkan dengan daerah utara dan bekerja di tanah-tanah pertanian milik negara, padahal dulunya saudagar di desa kecil. "Mereka menjadi miskin tiba-tiba dan melakukan pekerjaan yang belum pernah dilakukan," ia melanjutkan.

Sebagai pakar kebudayaan China, Claudine tahu bahwa kebudayaan mereka yang disebut "tionghoa" di Indonesia berbeda jauh dengan kebudayaan Tiongkok. "Prasangka muncul karena ketidaktahuan orang terhadap sejarah masyarakat Tionghoa di Indonesia yang begitu panjang."

Dalam berbagai tulisannya, Claudine memperlihatkan, orang Tionghoa telah berada di Indonesia sejak zaman Sriwijaya dan memainkan peran penting dalam perkembangan ekonomi dan politik.

Meski menolak bicara soal hubungan Islam dan Tionghoa, dalam tulisannya bersama Denys Lombard (1994), dipaparkan berbagai catatan sejarah mengenai hubungan harmonis antara Tionghoa-Islam pada masa lalu. Beberapa Tionghoa Muslim berhasil melebur dalam dunia
aristokrasi lokal. Namun, oleh beberapa faktor, termasuk politik devide et impera, hubungan itu memburuk.

"Saya kira sejumlah orang Indonesia yang menganggap diri sebagai orang 'pribumi' adalah keturunan Tionghoa," kata Claudine, "Saya menganggap diri orang Perancis, tetapi nenek moyang saya mungkin datang dari Jerman."

Karena sejarah panjang orang Tionghoa di Indonesia tak banyak diketahui, banyak pula hal yang tidak diketahui. Dalam berbagai karyanya ia memperlihatkan, pers Melayu-Tionghoa dan para penulis peranakan Tionghoa berperan besar dalam penyebarluasan bahasa Melayu sebagai lingua franca di Indonesia sejak tahun 1890-an.

Ia tidak menyebut secara pasti kapan orang Tionghoa memasuki dunia pers. Tetapi, di Makassar, mereka bekerja bersama dengan orang Makassar dan Manado menerbitkan surat kabar.

"Di Surakarta ada surat kabar yang punya dua bagian, satu dalam bahasa Jawa dan satu dalam bahasa Melayu. Surat kabar itu diprakarsai seorang Tionghoa, lalu diteruskan oleh orang Jawa," ia menambahkan.

Silang budaya

Prasangka terhadap mereka yang dianggap "pendatang" sebenarnya terjadi di mana-mana, termasuk di Eropa. Perasaan sebagai "pribumi" kerap kali dipilin dengan nasionalisme sempit, membuat orang tak mau mengakui sumbangan dari berbagai kebudayaan yang membentuk suatu bangsa, bahkan Eropa, seperti sekarang.

"Di Paris baru diresmikan museum bagi orang asing yang datang ke Perancis dan menjadi warga negara Perancis," ujar Claudine.

Museum itu banyak ditentang, baik dari golongan kiri maupun kanan karena mempertegas prasangka. "Lebih baik semua dilihat sebagai warga negara dengan hak-hak dan kedudukan yang setara. Dari nama pun ketahuan, mereka bukan 'pribumi', tetapi sudah berabad-abad ada di Perancis."

"Di sini juga sama. Integrasi terjadi dari abad ke abad," lanjutnya, "Orang yang membuat kebijakan asimilasi tak tahu sejarah ini. Hanya melihat ini dari sudut politik."

Ia mengingatkan, orang Tionghoa di Indonesia berasal dari kelompok yang beragam. Integrasi terjadi dengan etnis terdekat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, membentuk kebudayaan yang kaya, tetapi berbeda-beda di kalangan sesama Tionghoa di Indonesia. Kenyataan yang rumit ini semakin memperjelas bahwa identitas yang ditunggalkan sungguh mencabik-cabik kemanusiaan manusia.

"Integrasi adalah satu proses yang alamiah, tak bisa dipaksa dan sebenarnya sudah berjalan," tegas Claudine.

Dalam berbagai tulisannya, Claudine Salmon menunjukkan apa yang disebut sebagai Sino-Indonesian cross culture fertilization atau Pemupukan Silang Budaya Tionghoa-Indonesia. Konsep ini, seperti dipaparkan Didi Kwartanada, Asvi Warman Adam, dan Myra Sidharta, berbeda dari istilah akulturasi maupun inkulturasi yang mencerminkan hubungan sepihak.

Cross culture fertilization mengacu pada pertemuan dua budaya yang berlainan. Setiap pihak melakukan pemupukan silang budaya ke dalam budaya masing-masing dan dengan sadar memperkaya bentuk-bentuk budaya yang sudah ada.

Claudine dan Denys menganut mazhab Annales, yang menolak dominasi unsur-unsur politik dan diplomatik dalam ilmu sejarah pada akhir tahun 1920-an. Penganut Annales tak hanya percaya pada "sejarah peristiwa-peristiwa" semata, tetapi juga mendorong munculnya kajian holistik atas masa lalu dengan memanfaatkan berbagai disiplin ilmu,
seperti geografi, lingusitik dan antropologi.

Mungkin karena itu pula, tak mudah baginya meneliti peran ekonomi orang Tionghoa di Indonesia karena sulitnya data mengenai perkembangan modal dalam jangka panjang.

"Setelah kemerdekaan banyak perusahaan dan pemilik ganti nama. Banyak keluarga yang dulu agak kaya pergi ke luar negeri," ia menegaskan, Konglomerat sekarang tak ada kaitannya dengan yang dulu."

Lalu, bagaimana mengatasi prasangka?

Claudine menegaskan pentingnya pendidikan. "Kalau bicara soal Tionghoa, artinya juga harus bicara soal Jawa, Batak, dan berbagai suku yang membangun Indonesia. Mereka punya andil membangun yang disebut 'kebudayaan Indonesia'."

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Special discount offer

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 11, 2008

When you are planning to shop from online stores, you may consider to use the discount promotional offer in order to save your money. Some sites now offer coupon code from some online merchants. Suppose you are now looking for office supplies, such as computer and printer ink catridges. Find the promo for computer available.

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Aside inject printer there are many coupon available for computer, laptop, notebook, monitor and so on. Copy the coupon and don't forget to see the expiration date to now the valid of the coupon. See more special deals available for business supplies, furniture, equipment and computers. Come back daily to see the latest discount coupons and promo code offers.

Get the coupon now and let see how much money you'll save, compare when you buy at the normal price and buy with the promotional coupon code....

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Political Positions in Indonesian Fine Arts in the 50’s

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 09, 2008

Between Revolution Stronghold and Laboratory of the West

Yogyakarta is the principal art center in Java during the 1950s. In Claire Holt’s report, Art in Indonesia (1968), she states that there were a total of seventy-four registered art-related organizations in Yogyakarta in 1955. Of that number, fourteen were general groups –and this included student founded organizations with common ethnic backgrounds, seventeen dancing clubs, sixteen music clubs, twelve drama clubs and seven fine art clubs. These organizations dealt with traditional or modern art forms. In addition to these organizations, campus-based student bodies had not been idle in their respective colleges. Overall, it is estimated that two-thirds to three-quarters of Java’s painters lived in Yogyakarta.

Hersri Setiawan, former Secretary General of LEKRA (Lembaga Kebudayaan Rakyat, People’s Culture Organization) Central Java, vividly captured the artist’s world of that time in his unpublished writings Tembang Turba. “In the early 50’s, numerous budding “artists” and “men of letters” would declare themselves “artists” after trying their hand at sketching self-portraits or composing verses about moonlight or love. The attributes of a typical liberal artist’s look would included shaggy, unwashed long hair, dressing in nothing but rags, patched here and there. The artists were not too fond of taking a shower either, because water and soap, so they say, killed inspiration. They would trawl through the city in search of glimmering inspirations amidst the debauched darkness of the city square. Deceive and steal, they would say, like Chairil [1] ”.

Hersri spoke about Yogyakarta’s transformation from a political center to a cultural center along with its genuine as well as fake extremists. “I don’t know about other cities, but that was what became of Yogyakarta then. This is due to the influence of the artist’s bohemian wave in ’45 as well as Yogya’s history as the Revolution Capital. Ever since the central government office moved back to Jakarta, Yogya had lost its status as ‘political center’ but gained its title as the ‘campus town’ and ‘the center of national culture’, inheriting with it the good and bad remnants from the extremities of the war for independence. During the later half of 1940s, Yogya, as the Revolution Capital, was swarmed with refugees from all across the nation who felt the threat of a common enemy. Day and night, the ‘extremists’ --NICA’s term for youth guerillas, the supporters of the new republic, were seen in every corner of the city. NICA’s definition of ‘extremists’ pointed at those who violated the rust en orde (security and order) they had imposed on the people, while the laymen’s definition of the same word merely described their physical attribute: unshaven, long haired, mustached men, carrying cartridge rounds and hand grenades wherever they went. Of course, there were the fakes among the true extremists who struggled for the nation’s cause.
The two most important artists’ organizations of the time, SIM and Pelukis Rakyat, operated from their headquarters in Yogyakarta. According to Claire Holt there were no “no fitting “isms” available at that time to describe the variety of their artistic style, not least “Indonesianism””. Works from this period is marked by the relationship between Society and Nature; one can easily distinguish an artist from the other through their respective working methods and ideological orientation.

Two of the biggest art patrons in the 1950’s were Soekarno and PKI (Partai Komunis Indonesia or Indonesian Communist Party), who share LEKRA’s ideologies. Soekarno’s definition on nationalism is Marhaenist Nationalism, while PKI’s nationalism is Communist nationalism, commonly referred to as “People’s Marxism” by many observers.

A Dutch scholar, Saskia Eleonora Wieringa (1999) in Penghancuran Gerakan Perampuan di Indonesia believed that the populist ideology of Soekarno’s Marhaenism emphasized on homogeneity and mutual cooperation. Revolution is the dream of an everlasting struggle. The sentiment of nationality is shaped by this condition, to face the common enemy, the colonial Dutch, overlooking the difference between the cooperating factions. Soekarno’s populism is based on his charismatic leadership, aimed at creating mythical unity to defend against external threats. In the mean time, PKI focused on class struggle, even though its ideology was not as steadfast as Marxism as expected, considering its Communism roots). The PKI leaders focused mainly on building a tremendous base of mass supporters from all over the country, instead of building a party whose cadres were educated, eloquent, dedicated and consistent in working on class struggle. By creating this huge “communist family”, PKI extracted certain elements of Javanese values, such as harmony, which was also a foundation of Soekarno’s Marhaenism.

President Soekarno, in his enthusiasm in collecting diverse works of arts since the 40’s, also played a role as one of the biggest patron of artists. Pierre Labrousse (1994) in “The Second Life of Bung Karno: Analysis of the Myth (1979-1981)” writes that Soekarno once said, “Buying and collecting paintings and works of arts are not comparable with collecting jewellery or accumulating gold… collecting works of arts means preserving authentic national legacy.” Though Soekarno’s taste may not always be as consistent as they may seem, it was nonetheless respected and often became the “benchmark” for what artists understood as the “Indonesian emotion” and “authentic national legacy”.
Edhi Sunarso, sculptor and a member of Pelukis Rakyat, relates how Soekarno played his role as the inspiration for his monumental projects. Edhi says, “Back then, I was working on the Monumen Dirgantara project. I had various designs to show, but none satisfied Bung Karno. Then he said to me, ‘we haven’t the means to manufactures any planes, least of all the fighting kind, but during revolution, we have all the courage to fly them. So make a statue that evokes this spirit of courage. That’s all we’ve got. Once again, what have we got? We have spirit. We have Gatutkaca!” Then he posed like Gatutkaca right in front of me, “Hurry! Make the sketch. Here, like this!” he said. Then there it was, I made the statue”.

The most influential sanggar (or art sanggar-cum-commune) such as SIM and Pelukis Rakyat depended partly on Soekarno’s version of nationalism, and partly on PKI’s version. Due to their members’ involvement in PKI’s activities, these sanggar were often called “left-wing sanggar”. The truth is, the political attitudes among their members remained diverse because they had never imposed any particular political attitude towards them. This is not the case with the later sanggar like Bumi Tarung, for example, which forced its members to take up LEKRA membership as well.

Compared to the the-association-of-professionals-looking Persagi, other associations had a more traditional bind –such as sanggar and etc-- towards their members. These sanggar resembled the kind of education developed in Taman Siswa, except that it was run with a looser rule. The leaders and the young, unmarried painters normally lived in these sanggar. The learning process at the sanggar was based on the principle of togetherness and so the leaders and senior painters would mentor the juniors.

A sanggar would receive their income from the sales of at art fairs and other instances, as well as donations from the government. These were spent on basic materials required to run suchinitiatives. A SIM member, Hendra Gunawan, left the sanggar because he disagreed with the organization’s subsidy distribution policy that they received from the government. Sudjojono emphasized on categorization according to members’ merit --classifying them into four class: A, B, C and D, based on their achievements and position as an artist. Hendra strongly oppose this model and demanded a classification scheme based on the status, either familial or marital, of all members. In his demand, he stated that married members should receive 200 rupiahs per month, while the unmarried ones, 100 rupiahs,; their merit as artists shouldn’t count. This disagreement was recorded by Claire Holt.

Hendra Gunawan left and founded Pelukis Rakyat and applied his ideal system there. On the rare occasion when it did not make enough money, Hendra or Affandi would dip into their private funds to keep their sanggar running. In fact, according to Edhi Sunarso, Hendra’s wife would sometimes sell her batik clothes to help with funding.

With all the good reputation he had enjoyed during the times when he led Persagi, Sudjojono, held a high steady position in the history of modern fine arts of Indonesia. Agus Darmawan T reports (“Hendra Gunawan dan Pikiran-pikiran yang Terempas”, Kompas, Oct 5, 2001) that Hendra Gunawan once acknowledged Sudjojono as the artist “who brought Indonesian fine art to new heights, and, to where it rightfully should be”. Claire Holt describes Sudjojono as “a versatile, determined and eloquent man, whom, at the same time, is torn between art and politic”. Holt believes Sudjojono had acquired a good education under the Dutch regime and had read European philosophy and literature. Is it no wonder then, Sudjojono, with such a background, would urge artists to be politically conscious and praised Picasso and Diego Rivera as role models. He firmly believed that arts must be devoted to the cause of social and political struggle.

However, Holt might be wrong in saying that Sudjojono began to support communism after the Independence war or during the 50’s, at least if that conclusion is to be deducted from testimonials by Oey Hay Djoen, Joesoef Isak, Sobron Aidit and Basuki Resobowo. In a discussion just outside the Jaringan Kerja Budaya headquarter in Jakarta, Oey Hay Djoen, once a member of Central Secretary of LEKRA said that Sudjojono had been a communist since 1945. Joesoef Isak, a leading journalist, gave another hint that by the end of the 40’s Sudjojono had aligned his sympathy with the communists. Joesoef said, as reported by Hafis Azhari in Biografi Joesoef Isak (draft of the book, unpublished), that after the Madiun Incident in 1948, which ended with the execution of Musso and the arrest of Amir Sjarifudin, Sudjojono met with Soekarno in Yogyakarta. At that time, the Dutch had just released Soekarno from exile in Bangka Island. Even during those dire times, Soekarno could not resist the temptation of owning a painting by Sudjojono. Both men agreed to exchange painting with clothes. Sudjojono then looked at Soekarno in the eyes and asked in Dutch:

“Mas Karno, ben jij nog steeds een Marxist?”

Soekarno seemed a little offended by that and retort, “Naturlijk Jon Ik ben nog steeds een Marxist!”

Sudjojono then ask, “En waarom blijtbt je maar stil, terwijl jouw vrienden die Marxisten waren doodgeschoten werdwn?”

Meaning:

“Mas Karno, are you still a Marxist?”

“Naturally, I am still a Marxist!”

“Then, why did you let your comrades get shot dead?”

This last question struck Soekarno deeply. He remained stunned for some time and finally broke into tears.

Sudjojono’s sympathy towards communism might have been sparked since the 30’s or even before. Sobron Aidit records in “Taman Siswa” (unpublished) that Taman Siswa back then was like a lair for PKI members; Sudjojono was educated there and eventually returned to lecture there.

Basuki Resobowo’s (2005) testimonial “Bercermin Dimuka Kaca: Seniman, Seni dan Masyarakat” about his meeting with Sudjojono in 1936, also gives a similar picture of Sudjojono intimate relationship with the ideology. Basuki relates, “I knew he’d come back from his journeys overseas. I came to him and asked, ‘Why you had come back so soon! How far did you go?’ In typical Sudjojono habit, upon seeing his good friend, he happily dragged his sleeves to a nearby inn to drink coffee and have a long, nice talk. He told him, “I only went as far as Singapore. I cancelled the plan to go to Europe. In Singapore I met some Indonesian expatriates who advised me to go back to the country instead of wasting my time there. Youths are needed during times like these, when war is imminent in Indonesia’. With the belief of an artist, he went on, ‘They’ve got a point there. Artists must not be apathetic, we must take part in the crucial political developments in the history of the Indonesian people.’ Sudjojono believed that time and place played a part in the process of creation of a work of art, though not a determining component.

If this talk between Basuki and Sudjojono had taken place in 1936, then chances are this meeting in Singapore with the “Indonesian expatriates” had influenced Sudjojono’s ideology during the Persagi era. The identity of these “Indonesian Expatriates” remain a mystery, but it must be noted that Singapore, during those times, was an escape for activists, especially the communist activists who sought refugee after failed communist coups from 1926 to 1927 when PKI was given verdict as a forbidden party.

Hendra Gunawan, on the other hand, was different from Sudjojono. Holt described Hendra Gunawan as “more open-minded and not as dogmatic as Sudjojono”. Hendra Gunawan had been interested in the integration of arts and politics before the 50’s. In Agus Hermawan T’s records, he paid his respects to Sudjojono and admits, “If I were to tell the truth about the person who brought Indonesian fine arts to new heights, then, that man is Sudjojono. Thanks to this fellow many painters learnt the lesson, in person or by other people. He believed that an artist must not just stand there; He must not be passive. An artist must organize himself as not to turn all his attention to simply creating while ignoring other movements, as these movements are essential in generating a revolution. That’s the least of it.”

Hendra explored further on the existence of an artist in the middle of a revolution and his position in politics. He said that SIM, Penulis Rakyat, and the individuals like Soerono, made passionate posters to advance the revolution. This made Dutch artists to question the local community in a hardened tone:
“Must you get involved with politics?’

Hendra Gunawan answered, “That’s right. We must…. Politics that is wrong will bend arts. And the right politics will nurture the arts.”

The important position that sanggars as SIM and Pelukis Rakyat occupied in the development of art was then brought to the recently art schools founded in Yogyakarta. The sanggar painters played a significant role in the art schools for a time. The most important art schools in Indonesia in the 50’s are the Academy of Fine Arts of Indonesia (ASRI, Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia) in Yogyakarta, founded in January 1950, and the Department of Architecture and Fine Arts of Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB, Institut Teknologi Bandung).

Most lecturers were sanggar painters and had no academic background in ASRI and was said to have fashioned their teaching methods after the sanggar model. The school lacked studio spaces so painting sessions had to be done in the outside. The academy also saw to it that its teachers not only taught artistic skills but also imparted their political understanding and attitudes to their students. Some influential teachers like Sudjojono, Affandi, Hendra Gunawan, Abdulsalam, Harijadi, Suromo, Trubus and Ng. Sembiring succeeded in persuading their students to join SIM, Pelukis Rakyat, or LEKRA, and even PKI. As “Western” art and techniques only made their way into the classrooms in the mid 50’s, it did not hold the same influence to war-time art as compared to the sanggar teachers.

In Bandung, according Holt, “the artists were conquered by art itself”. Art schools in Bandung already had excellent studios and classrooms. Art education was taught according to the Western model. Compared to the more politically inclined Yogyakarta, Bandung was more interested in methods and theories of aesthetics. The most influential teacher in Bandung is Dutch painter, Ries Mulder. In Holt’s reports, Mulder described his teaching method as providing an introduction to the formal visual language in its widest possible sense, the possibility of line, tone, color, shape and space, and their function in artistic expression as applied during the different periods in different parts of the world.
Mulder admitted, “in criticizing my students work, apart from formal and technical advice, I limit myself from the development of their personal efforts in developing their work. It’s a fact I fully realize that the element of personal influence is inevitable, but nobody with profound knowledge of the situation developing here, will deny that I had managed to control these influence to the extent that it can work indirectly. My students influence one another on a stronger level compared to my influence on them”.

Mulder further told his students, “You are free to find yourselves without obstacles, or prejudice, or sentiments without daily pressures that you are ‘Indonesian’. Why would you hide this independence from other people?’
Helena Spanjaard (1990), in her “Bandung, the Laboratory of the West?” called the works of Ries’ students --Ahmad Sadali, But Mochtar, Popo Iskandar and Mochtar Apin, among others-- as “Ries Mulder’s cubism”. After the mid 50’s the works of these Bandung painters were becoming more diverse in terms of their form and content but they generally painted in abstract style.
Artists from Yogyakarta would often say that the work of Bandung painters --Ries’ students-- lacked ideological content. They called the works by Bandung artists “Western art” that was individualistic and tended to be abstract expressionists whereas Yogyakarta’s art is “Indonesian art”, socialist and realist in their expressions. Based on these characteristics, Hendra Gunawan would always claim Yogyakarta as the “center of nationalist art, the stronghold of revolution.”

Observers would generally say that the works of Yogyakarta painters --for example, the works of Hendra Gunawan, Affandi, or Sudjojono--are indeed extraordinary realist and expressionist works. These works are mostly social documentary of the war years against the Dutch, portraying troops, refugees, senior citizens, children, and profound self portraits. Such works are exhibited in the open several times as an acknowledgement of the struggle for independence.

Trisno Sumarjo, an art critic, in his “Bandung Mengabdi Laboratorium Barat” classifies two kinds of modern Indonesian arts: first, spontaneous art, native of the country, born by the spirit and the experience of Indonesia; the other, imitation or artificial arts in the classrooms of Western “laboratories”. Trisno condemns the fine arts in Bandung that are, in his point of view, “shallow”, “bloodless”, and smell like “the air of European laboratories” as the victims of foreign teachers who support modernism. In the mean time, an LKN (Lembaga Kebudayaan Nasional, National’s Culture Organization) ) officer, Sitor Situmorang, believes that Bandung artists have developed a shallow modernism, directly taken from the taste of Western bourgeoisie. Western paintings, he proceeds, are in crisis and are no more than a trick, a game of perspective, composition and color contrast. Modern art has no meaning, delivers no message and doesn’t have the point of view on the world, unlike Yogyakarta paintings. This modern art, he says, is only a visual expression of the private life of the painter and will never fulfill its cultural function in Indonesia.

Other observers are keener to call the arena of Indonesian fine arts during the 50’s as a contest between the concept of “art for the people’s sake” and “art for art’s sake”. The tendency towards Western art as was happening in Bandung is a representation of this art for art’s sake; on the contrary, the high sentiment of citizenship and nationalism in Yogyakarta represented the view of art for the people’s sake. This is one reason why Yogyakarta became perfect place for the growth of LEKRA’s notions.



Note:

[1] Chairil Anwar is the prominent Indonesian poet during the 40’s.


This article was officially publisheat at http://www.kunci.or.id

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Remembering Sobron Aidit

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 09, 2008

Sobron Aidit has passed away on February, 10 2007 in Paris, France, and his corpse was burried at Père Lachaise. His work was documented at Panorama Indonesia. I do not know who had kindly made this page. This page collected Sobron work, prose, poem, all archive written in Bahasa Indonesia. See on the Sobron Aidit page now.

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Book Review: "Dominance without Hegemony"

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 09, 2008

I admire Edward Said for his brilliant work on debunking the myth of western hegemony by his study "Orientalism". His work has opened our mind that the dichotomy of western and eastern in fact was designed by the west to describe a tradition, both academic and artistic, of hostile and deprecatory views of the East by the West. Through this work, Said highlights the inaccuracies of a wide variety of assumptions as it questions various paradigms of thought which are accepted on individual, academic, and political levels.

If you are interested in post-colonial studies, besides reading on Said's book, you may be interested to see one of the important book which discussed about the history of the colonial state in South Asia, especially India. "Dominance without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India" by Ranajit Guha.

Aside from its obvious relevance to Indian history, Guha's book is a brilliant example of revolutionary historical method, new perspectives on nationalist history, and theoretical inventiveness in the procedures of historical research.
--Edward W. Said


Short description about the book

What is colonialism and what is a colonial state? Ranajit Guha points out that the colonial state in South Asia was fundamentally different from the metropolitan bourgeois state which sired it. The metropolitan state was hegemonic in character, and its claim to dominance was based on a power relation in which persuasion outweighed coercion. Conversely, the colonial state was non-hegemonic, and in its structure of dominance coercion was paramount. Indeed, the originality of the South Asian colonial state lay precisely in this difference: a historical paradox, it was an autocracy set up and sustained in the East by the foremost democracy of the Western world. It was not possible for that non-hegemonic state to assimilate the civil society of the colonized to itself. Thus the colonial state, as Guha defines it in this closely argued work, was a paradox--a dominance without hegemony.

Dominance without Hegemony had a nationalist aspect as well. This arose from a structural split between the elite and subaltern domains of politics, and the consequent failure of the Indian bourgeoisie to integrate vast areas of the life and consciousness of the people into an alternative hegemony. That predicament is discussed in terms of the nationalist project of anticipating power by mobilizing the masses and producing an alternative historiography. In both endeavors the elite claimed to speak for the people constituted as a nation and sought to challenge the pretensions of an alien regime to represent the colonized. A rivalry between an aspirant to power and its incumbent, this was in essence a contest for hegemony.

See also the review from Harvard University Press,

Buy this book from Amazon:



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Shopping and save money, get the discount coupons

Written by eastern writer on Wednesday, April 09, 2008

Do you like shopping online? Save your money now by shopping discount at your favorite online stores. To get the coupon, visit Best Online Coupons. Available comprehensive selection of online coupons from many reputable shopping merchants. Get your coupon codes for Best Buy, Dell Computer, eBags, Circuit City, Target, Expedia, Macys, Office Depot, ProFlowers, Old Navy, Orbitz, Overstock.com, 1-800-Flowers and Walmart for your discount shopping enjoyment.

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Besides apparel and clothing , there also available other product. Let see on the left sidebar, the product list by categories, such as automotive, book and magazines, computer, electronics and so on.

For your information, this site is updated constantly, with new discounts, promotional codes and special offers added every day. So, whenever you want to buy from your favorite online stores, let see the coupon code at Best Online Coupons. This site also is completely free to use.

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Feminist Cultural Studies and The Javanese Culture

Written by eastern writer on Monday, April 07, 2008

Feminist Cultural Studies (Kajian Budaya Feminis: Tubuh, Sastra, dan Budaya Pop) is a book written by Aquarini Priyatna Prabasmoro, one of Indonesian feminist writer. Some of her articles were published at Kalam, one of the most reputable literary journal in Indonesia, supported by Utan Kayu community.

Nana Podungge wrote a review about that book and criticize patriarchal society, especially in Javanese society which took woman on the second class. Nana show us the relationship between wife and husband in a family.

Aquarini who is married to a Javanese man didn’t know this. When one day she used Ngoko language to the husband, the husband’s family members didn’t like it and consider Aquarini an impolite woman. As a feminist, It directly left a bad taste in her mouth coz using Javanese language made her less important than her husband. Then she asked her husband to speak the national language—Bahasa Indonesia—that doesn’t have such a hierarchy. She is lucky, I suppose, coz her husband didn’t complain and agreed with her.

In a way, it is a dilemma. When more and more people think like this, it will make Javanese language vanish. However, I agree with Aquarini that the application of three different hierarchies in this local language will make women feel inferior, as someone less important.

It reminded me of my own bitter experience in my first marriage. I didn’t use Kromo Inggil to speak to him in the past. However, I used to call Angie’s dad “Mas”, one term mostly used by Javanese people to show respect to men. He just called me my name. After we got divorced, I no longer call him “Mas”. It left a bad taste in my mouth! It really made me forced to be the less important party only coz I was born female; and he the respected one only coz he was born male!

Perhaps for many people it is just a trivial thing. But to me—also to Aquarini—and perhaps also to some other feminists—this is a principle thing in life.

It reminds me of questions asked by many people to me, “Why do you feminists bother those things taken for granted for centuries and try to deconstruct them? Why don’t you just live in peace by accepting everything just the way it is? (Read => to accept that men are the better sex, the superior, the smarter, the stronger, etc.)
We just want to have equality. It sounds easy but difficult to make it real.

Source: http://afemaleguest.blog.co.uk


What do you think about woman in Javanese Society or in other patriarchal society, do you agree with Nana and Aquarini, or against their opinion?

This is the detail of the book (in Bahasa Indonesia)

Judul buku: Kajian Budaya Feminis: Tubuh, Sastra, dan Budaya Pop
Penulis: Aquarini Priyatna Prabasmoro
Penerbit: Jalasutra, Yogyakarta & Bandung
Cetakan: Pertama, 2006
Tebal: xlviii + 464 halaman

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eConnek replacement connectors

Written by eastern writer on Monday, April 07, 2008

Push/Pull connectors to fit your design and your schedule with plastic pipe connectors or metal connector. Visit eConnek to get more information about alternative electrical connector solutions for any industry. eConnek replacement connectors are used in the very same applications as OEMs connectors. eConnek has exactly what you need, when you need it at an unbeatable price.

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eConnek specializes in replacement parts for electrical connectors in medical, industrial manufacturing, military and aerospace applications. Product offerings include metal circular and plastic circular connectors intermatable to REDEL®, LEMO® and ODU® connectors. Econet guarantees its costumer with Brand Name Quality and Economy Pricing so that with eConnek you get the quality of the original, but at a more economical price with unmatched service.

Check www.econnek.com for more information.

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Child of All Nations, Buru Quartet by Pramoedya Ananta Toer (English Version)

Written by eastern writer on Sunday, April 06, 2008

This Earth of Mankind, Child of All Nations,Footsteps, House of Glass
This edition was translated from the Indonesian by Max Lane
Penguin 1982, 1984, 1990, 1992

In the Buru Quartet, the four novels which begin with This Earth of Mankind, Pramoedya Ananta Toer has written what should be recognised as the Indonesian War and Peace. Set in Java in the then Dutch East Indies, at the beginning of this century, its subject is nothing less than the broad sweep of Indonesian colonial history and politics. Based on a historical figure, the protagonist, Minke, is a Native Javanese, a Raden Mas or noble who has received a Western education.

The first two volumes (also published together as Awakenings) describe Minke's coming of age, caught in a conflict between cultures. In This Earth of Mankind he marries Annelies, the daughter of a Javanese concubine and a Dutch factory owner. When her father dies, she becomes the legal property of her Dutch relatives and is taken to the Netherlands, her Islamic marriage having no standing. In Child of All Nations Minke's real political awakening begins. He starts to write in Malay rather than Dutch, he follows events in Japan and China and in the Philippines, and he experiences firsthand the effects of sugar farming and the exploitation of his own people.

In Footsteps Minke moves to Betawi (Jakarta) to study at medical school, though he soon abandons that as a career. He marries a second time, to a Chinese activist, and enters into public political life, founding the first Native organisation and launching a newspaper. This is set against the background of the Dutch conquest of Bali. Minke's "memoirs" end with his exile to Ambon and the narrator in the final novel is Pangemanann, a Western educated Native who has risen in the service of the government, first to police commissioner and then to member of the Algemeene Secretariat, the advisory body to the governor. He chronicles his manipulation, surveillance, and terrorisation of the various opposition movements and leaders, Minke among them. As well as narrating the historical events down to the end of the First World War, House of Glass is a moral condemnation of colonialism from the inside.

The novels become progressively heavier with historical and political exposition as the series progresses; they will appeal most obviously to those curious about Indonesian history or the politics of colonialism. But they also retain an easy flow and a vividness which remind one that the first two were originally spoken, in a prison camp where Pramoedya was denied access to writing materials. Pramoedya's works were for many years banned in Indonesia.

Buy this book from Amazon

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Atheis by Achdiat K. Mihardja (English Version)

Written by eastern writer on Sunday, April 06, 2008

Set in Indonesia before and during the Japanese occupation, Atheis tells the story of Hasan, a pious Muslim who loses his faith after falling in love and becoming involved with a group of radicals. It is both a love story and a vivid account of the period. Definitely worth reading.

This edition was translated from the Indonesian by R.J. Maguire
University of Queensland Press 1972

buy from Amazon.com

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Bad Credit Loans & Credit Cards

Written by eastern writer on Sunday, April 06, 2008

Did you have any bad credit loans experiences which had lead you fall in a serious financial problem? Don't worry, you are not alone. Bad credit is also a reality for millions of Americans, making it difficult for these consumers to build the future they envision for themselves and their families. Fortunately, there are lenders who are willing to give those with bad credit credit card a second chance.

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Habiburrahman El Shirazy: No intentions to counter 'Satanic Verses'

Written by eastern writer on Sunday, April 06, 2008

Islam is an easy target for misrepresentation. It has been misunderstood and misused for centuries by its ignorant followers as well as its "enemies".

It is no surprise then that questions about the nature of the religion have been reiterated over the past three decades.

Does the faith recognize human rights? Is it compatible with democracy? Does it respect women? Is it tolerant? Can it cope with modernity and adopt its modern institutions? A bulk of scientific, philosophical articles have been written to answer these indicting questions, but the prejudices against the faith persist.

It is in such a frustrating situation that Muslim author Habiburrahman El Shirazy writes his novels and now plans to translate his most popular piece, Ayat-Ayat Cinta (Verses of Love), into English.

The movie based on the novel, which bears the same title, has proved to be wildly popular -- making schoolgirls and even the President shed tears.

"I just want to show the beauty of Islam that I feel and comprehend. Islam encourages its adherents to do good unto others and orders them to develop and respect the truth," the 32-year-old told The Jakarta Post in a email interview.

Graduating from Cairo's Al-Azhar University, the oldest and the most prestigious university in the Islamic world, Habiburrahman is among the few Indonesian Muslim writers who is well-versed in traditional Islamic studies such as the hadith, fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and Koranic exegesis. He was also brought up in a pesantren (Islamic boarding school) culture in Demak, Central Java.

His past distinguishes him from other Muslim writers, especially those from local state universities -- like the University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, Padjajaran University and the Bandung Technology Institute -- who were mostly brought up in secular schools and who learned about Islam from translated books and by participating in the tarbiyah movement, the genesis of the Justice Prosperous Party (PKS).

Kang Abik, as his friends call him, said his novels do have a purpose -- the propagation of Islam.

To some readers, his works might sound irritatingly preachy as they were written with the conviction that "one of the ways to serve God is to use art as a medium to promote virtue".

"Art in Islam is considered to be in accordance with human nature, or fitrah. Islam recognizes that human beings need beauty, or arts. As serving God is the ultimate purpose of human life, everything (including making art) is a form of ibadah (worship) if it is aimed to serve God," he said.

But is not art identical with the freedom of expression?

"Every human being has desire. There is always this desire that tells a person to do evil. This desire has often turned art into a medium of gratification and freedom of expression is often used as an excuse. It contradicts the true nature of art, which is the beauty that enlightens people," he said.

Art and religion have long been part of Abik's life.

"It all started when I participated in a poetry reading competition in elementary school and won it. I read a poem by Chairil Anwar entitled 'Pangeran Diponegoro' (Prince Diponegoro). I was so happy because they gave me books as the prize. Since then, I have continued to enjoy literature. It all started with that poem," he said.

He said he started reading novels when he was in elementary school.

"There were several novels about the national struggle for independence in the school's library. There was a movie titled Serangan Fajar. I think that's the reason why I loved reading novels with a national theme," he said.

Before leaving for Egypt to study at Al-Azhar, he had won many art competitions. He had also written and directed a theatrical poem entitled Dzikir Dajjal (The Remembrance of the Anti-Christ) during high school.

In Ayat-Ayat Cinta, which is based on his contemplations of one the verses in the Koran, Kang Abik tries to present the "correct" Islam. One of the things that he tries to highlight is the relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims, especially the ahlul kitab, or "people of the Book".

"The most important thing in becoming a Muslim is contemplating the Koran consistently and responsibly. I believe if people understand the Koran correctly, they can be as mature as Fachri (the protagonist in the novel) when he interacts with Maria, who is a Coptic Christian," he said.

His novel goes further than telling Muslims to respect their Christian neighbors and guests. There are two sensitive issues, he said, that mainstream Muslims in Indonesia have missed or intentionally overlooked in the novel and the movie.

Kang Abik believes that interfaith marriage -- as conducted by Fachri and Maria -- is allowed in Islam, though with "several important conditions".

"The ground is clear as stated by sura Al-Maidah verse 5," adding that he was "following the opinion of the majority of the ulema".

The other issue concerns the controversy of polygamy. While a number of Muslim preachers promote polygamy, Kang Abik believes that "Islam demands justice, including in marriage".

"I believe that monogamy is more just than polygamy."

The character Fachri is loved by four women and marries two of them, but the novel highlights Fachri's natural inclination to be monogamous and -- as clearly shown in the movie -- depicts the psychological effects of a polygamous marriage.

"Polygamy is commanded by God as a solution, not a purpose. In the words of the majority of the ulema, polygamy is arukhsah (relief or dispensation), which should be carried out in a condition of emergency. We have to see this matter correctly. Sharia never intended to abuse people," he said.

Amid his activities as a lecturer and manager of his pesantren, Basmala Indonesia, and traveling from one city to another to talk about Islam, Kang Abik still proves himself to be a prolific writer.

Besides Ayat-Ayat Cinta, his other novels include Diatas Sajadah Cinta (On the Carpet of Love), Ketika Cinta Berbuah Surga (When Love Bears Heaven), Pudarnya Pesona Cleopatra (The Fading Charm of Cleopatra), Ketika Cinta Bertasbih (When Love Praises God, two volumes) and Dalam Mihrab Cinta (In the Pulpit of Love). He is now finishing Langit Makkah Berwarna Merah (the Red Sky in Mecca), Bidadari Bermata Bening (The Angel with Bright Eyes) and Bulan Madu di Yerussalem (Honeymoon in Jerusalem).

He reiterated that he writes his novels to promote kindness, not to counter other novels, including the famous work by Salman Rushdie, The Satanic Verses, which is considered blasphemous by the majority of Muslims.

"Ayat-Ayat Cinta will be translated into English, it is not aimed at countering any novel."

Source: The Jakarta Post

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Charlton Heston has passed away

Written by eastern writer on Sunday, April 06, 2008

Legendary actor Charlton Heston has passed away. He died today at his home in Beverly Hills. He was 83.

Mr. Heston starred in over 100 movies and became an icon based on more than just one film. His most notable roles were Moses in The Ten Commandments, astronaut George Taylor in Planet of the Apes, Detective Thorn in Soylent Green and Charles Neville in The Omega Man (yes, the same Neville as the one in I Am Legend).


Here is the official statement released by his family earlier today:

"To his loving friends, colleagues and fans, we appreciate your heartfelt prayers and support. Charlton Heston was seen by the world as larger than life. He was known for his chiseled jaw, broad shoulders and resonating voice, and, of course, for the roles he played. Indeed, he committed himself to every role with passion, and pursued every cause with unmatched enthusiasm and integrity."

"We knew him as an adoring husband, a kind and devoted father, and a gentle grandfather, with an infectious sense of humor. He served these far greater roles with tremendous faith, courage and dignity. He loved deeply, and he was deeply loved."

"No one could ask for a fuller life than his. No man could have given more to his family, to his profession, and to his country. In his own words, 'I have lived such a wonderful life! I've lived enough for two people.' A private memorial service will be held. The family has requested that, in lieu of flowers, donations be made to the Motion Picture and Television Fund:"

MPTF
22212 Ventura Boulevard, Suite 300
Woodland Hills, CA 91364
www.mptvfund.org

Website: http://www.mptvfund.org

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Breaking a writing block

Written by eastern writer on Sunday, April 06, 2008

All writers experience the occasional writing block.

Every few months I go through a period of time when I feel nauseous (that is, physically ill) whenever I sit down to write. It's as if my cobbler's elves have gone on strike and put up a "Gone fishing" sign. Years ago, I took this response as a sign that I should give up writing, and do something which made more sense. I agonized, wondering what the heck was wrong with me. Stupidly, I also binned whatever I was working on when the block hit. You should NEVER do this. Heaven knows how many manuscripts I binned when I wasn't thinking straight.

It took me a long while to realize that you can't bully creativity. You can coax it, but you can't flog it into action.

All creative people need to have regular periods where they relax and take a break. I watch a movie or three, and go window shopping. I read a lot. If I have to write for a deadline, I write in longhand, or on my Palm handheld, forcing myself to write a word at a time, because I know it has to get done.

I know now, that if I leave myself alone, I usually snap out of the block within a few days or a week.

There's a danger to a block like this. Because you're depressed, you may think that whatever you were working when the block hit was the trigger for the block, and decide to scrap the project.

**** HERE'S A TIP: NEVER, EVER DELETE YOUR WORK WHEN YOU'RE DEPRESSED ***

Don’t delete anything. After you get over the block, and are writing with enjoyment again, you can decide whether or not to scrap a project. Don’t make decisions like this when you're in the middle of a block.


This article is originally taken from http://copywriter.typepad.com.
Read also "Memulai dan Mengatasi writer's Block" a brief explanation about Writer's Block by Golagong.

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Postfeminism vs. the Third Wave

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 04, 2008

In reading the essays on postfeminism in this section of EBR, I'm struck by the imprecision of the term. Some of the essays - like Stobb's - seem not to be discussing postfeminism per se, but just younger feminist negotiations with the conditions of life in the early 20th century. Others, like Guertin, use the term postfeminism but without a particular sense of its significance; this piece seems more to be discussing feminism in general, or perhaps third wave feminism - I find the discussion of cyberfeminism fascinating, but I don't buy that it's equivalent to postfeminism. Helford, Yaszek, and Mazza seem to be engaging with the idea of postfeminism in ways that I find most interesting and useful; they're identifying something other than third wave feminism, and they're considering the significance of the "post" rhetoric as it applies to feminism in an era of backlash.

The term "postfeminism" always makes me wary - it's a suspect term, a catchphrase from the early '90s that was used to suggest that we no longer need feminism, that we're past it. I don't hear it that much anymore, but when I do, it's often problematically used in a way that suggests it's synonymous with third wave feminism.

Now, speaking of imprecise and suspect terms, third wave feminism is right there with them - it's a highly contested term that loosely defines a generational and political cohort born after the heyday of the second wave women's movement. Although I've edited a collection of essays that both embraces and interrogates the term,notenotenote
Catching a Wave: Reclaiming Feminism for the 21st Century (Northeastern University Press, 2003)note1note others - like Bitch publisher Lisa Jervis - have argued that it's time to get rid of it altogether.

The controversies surrounding the use of the term "third wave feminism," however, are different from those surrounding "postfeminism." When feminists debate the third wave, generally they're trying to determine if there's enough of a generational divide between older and younger feminists to warrant a whole new label. The question seems to be, have we moved far enough from the social issues that propelled the women's movement in the 1960s and '70s to be able to suggest that there's a new wave? The rhetoric surrounding postfeminism, by contrast, tends, as Lisa Yaszek notes, "to describe the contemporary moment as one in which the goals of feminism have been achieved" and "to invoke a `blame-the-victim' mentality." Often arguments made from a postfeminist perspective rely on what Elyce Helford identifies as "the belief that personal choices and `bootstrap' efforts can bring a woman (and hence all women) empowerment and equality." While the third wave says, "We've got a hell of a lot of work to do!" postfeminism says, "Go buy some Manolo Blahniks and stop your whining."

Postfeminism relies on competitive individualism and eschews collective action; it obscures or makes invisible the many ways in which women are often fearful, subjected to rape and other kinds of violence, and politically and economically underprivileged. The third wave, however - in texts from Third Wave Agenda to Manifesta to Colonize This! - grapples with women's intersectional identities and demands an end to all the forms of oppression that keep women from achieving their full humanity.

Postfeminism and the third wave, then, are entirely different entities. Rebecca Walker's 1992 essay, "Becoming the Third Wave," articulates these differences powerfully; the essay documents the virulent and persistent sexism of the early 1990s and calls young feminists to rally to the cause, and the final paragraph of the essay consists of this declaration:

I am not a postfeminism feminist. I am the Third Wave.

Reading that always makes me want to make a fist and say, "Hell, yeah."

So, thirteen years after Walker's declaration, are we not finally past postfeminism?

:: this article written by Alison Piepmeier, originally published at www.electronicbookreview.com

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Meeting with NH Dini

Written by eastern writer on Friday, April 04, 2008

Nurhayati Sri Hardini Siti Nukatin also known as NH Dini was born in Semarang, Central Java, on February 29, 1936. Dini is one of Indonesian Feminist Writer who have started writing her literary works (novel and short story) since the 1950-60s decade when she was sixteen years old. And she amazingly keep writing her new novel up to now, after releasing "La Grande Borne" (2007) she recently released a new novel "Argenteuil" (March 2008). At least more than 20s books has been wrote by Dini. (Read more about NH Dini at Indonesian Wikipedia)

Image: NH Dini celebrate 68 birthday in Bentara Budaya Yogyakarta. [image taken from suaramerdeka.com]


I find any information related to NH Dini on the net. A blogger told on her blog that she has a simple ambition in his life. What's that, meeting with NH Dini. Wouw... sound great!


Aku punya satu cita-cita sederhana. Bertemu NH Dini, salah satu penulis buku yang aku kagumi.

Sudah beberapa tahun ini, terlebih sejak aku membaca Namaku Hiroko, Pada Sebuah Kapal dan Dari Parangakik ke Kampuchea, aku terobsesi ingin bertemu beliau. Mungkin sama sepertinya keinginan Happy Salma bertemu Pramoedya Ananta Toer. Bedanya, cita-cita Happy sudah tercapai, cita-citaku belum.

Source: http://shirleythe_24may.blogs.friendster.com


"Speaking of love, I had the opportunity to be introduced recently to one of your famous literary writers, by the name of NH Dini. I am not a literary person, and I haven't read any of her work (I used to read books by Hamka when I was a kid). But, she is one of those who exude a certain aura of love and compassion, no doubt gained from her life experience of 70 years, and all the people and events that contribute to it. And when she smiled at me, I felt so accepted and so understood. I love her, that lady, and I wish her blessings and joy the rest of her wonderful life."

Source: http://www.opensubscriber.com/message/zamanku@yahoogroups.com/8034191.html


More links related to NH Dini on the net:
- Buku NH Dini Cermin Batin Perempuan
- Biography of NH Dini at Wikipedia